Deck 12: Inductive Generalizations

Question 1

Whereas deductive arguments are evaluated according to their validity, inductive arguments are evaluated according to their:

A)strength
B)simplicity
C)validity
D)invalidity
E)volume

Answer 1

A

Question 2

The first rule of generalization is that the sample should be sufficiently _____ and _____.

A)numerous; similar
B)numerous; various
C)simple; similar
D)simple; abstract
E)simple; various

Answer 2

B

Question 3

The second rule of generalization is that we should look for _____ as well as _____ instances of a generalization.

A)large; small
B)disconfirming; confirming
C)theoretical; practical
D)controversial; noncontroversial
E)real; imagined

Answer 3

B

Question 4

When we look for and give weight to evidence supporting a conclusion, while ignoring, downplaying, or failing to seek evidence against it, that is called:

A)confirmation bias
B)disconfirmation bias
C)inductive invalidity
D)myopic induction
E)false generalization

Question 5

An instance that confirms a generalization is called a _____ instance, whereas an instance that disconfirms a generalization is called a _____ instance.

A)positive; terminating
B)promoting; negative
C)positive; negative
D)negative; positive
E)negative; promoting

Question 6

Inductive generalization is:

A)applying a general principle to particular cases
B)drawing a general conclusion from particular cases
C)another name for the fallacy of hasty generalization
D)arriving at a conclusion without providing any evidence for it
E)a type of deductive argument

Question 7

Suppose that I want to make the generalization that all college freshmen in America are financially dependent on their parents.Which of the following samples would be the best basis?

A)the freshman class at Harvard University
B)a random sampling of 2% of American college freshmen
C)freshmen who respond to a survey advertised on nationwide radio
D)the national freshman membership of the Delta Omicron Gamma fraternity
E)five students from the largest college in each state

Question 8

In an inductive argument:

A)if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true
B)if the conclusion is true, then the premises must be true
C)either the premises and conclusion are all false or they are all true
D)the premises support the truth of the conclusion, but do not guarantee it
E)if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be false

Question 9

If we wish to make a generalization that "all S are P," how various should our sample be?

A)It must include examples of Ss that are P, and also Ss that are not P.
B)It must include every member of the S class.
C)It must include every member of the P class.
D)It must include Ss that vary in every property that might be responsible for their being P.
E)It must include only Ss that are quite similar to each other.

Question 10

Which of the following is an example of induction?

A)If the bus is late, then I'll be late for school.So I'll be late for school.
B)All burglars are criminals and all criminals deserve jail time.So all burglars deserve jail time.
C)Either cardboard floats on water or it sinks.But it doesn't sink.So it floats.
D)The previous 25 trains on this track had more than 50 train cars.So all trains on this track have more than 50 train cars.
E)A good workout lasts at least 20 minutes.So if I run for an hour, that will be a good workout.

Question 11

Can a strong generalization about a group of things ever be based on a single instance?

A)Yes, if there is good reason to think that the instance is representative of the whole group.
B)Yes, if the instance is the only one available.
C)Yes, if the generalization is already believed to be true by most people.
D)No, because a single instance by itself never has any observable properties.
E)No, because the instance will always be very different from other instances in the group.

Question 12

Which of the following is an example of induction?

A)Carson has been tearing up the house at night, so he should sleep in his doghouse tonight.
B)Lions, cheetahs, and house cats all have whiskers.This suggests that all felines have whiskers.
C)Whenever my aunt visits, we have a good conversation.Given that she is coming this weekend, I'm expecting good conversation this weekend.
D)This has got to be chicken, because it's got the texture of chicken or turkey but it doesn't have the same dry aftertaste that turkey has.
E)Without fire, our ancestors could not have survived in this climate.Thus it is clear that our ancestors had fire.

Question 13

Suppose that I want to make the generalization that no fungus contains chlorophyll.Which of the following samples would be the best basis?

A)the fungus collection of a biology professor who specializes in fungi
B)a random sampling of 5% of the 100,000 known species of fungus
C)a collection of all known fungus species in Brazil, where fungi are known to be extremely diverse
D)twenty species of fungus from each continent, and another twenty from each ocean
E)one species from every known genus of fungus

Question 14

Does every generalization have negative instances?

A)Yes, because no generalization is true in every case.
B)Yes, because every generalization has positive instances, and there must be a balance.
C)No, because there is never more than one negative instance.No plural instances!
D)No, because all generalizations are true in every case.
E)No, because a true generalization is true in every case.

Question 15

When a generalization is made, is it always possible to have a complete enumeration?

A)No, because it is never possible to have a complete enumeration.
B)No, because there can only be a complete enumeration when there are fewer than 50 instances.
C)No, because sometimes there are too many instances to examine them all.
D)Yes, because if there is not a complete enumeration, then you can't make a generalization at all.
E)Yes, because even an infinite number of instances could be thoroughly examined in a finite number of clusters.

Question 16

Suppose that I am a professional linguist with a specialization in African languages and I want to make the generalization that all African languages have an "S" sound.What would be the best way to go about looking for disconfirming instances?

A)Listen to languages spoken in Nigeria, where there are more languages than anywhere else in Africa.
B)Listen to six languages from north Africa and six languages from sub-Saharan Africa.
C)Listen to obscure languages that I've never studied from different parts of Africa.
D)Listen to the languages spoken in the four most populous countries of Africa.
E)Listen to the most well-known and documented languages of Africa.

Question 17

Which of the following is an example of induction?

A)Because a watch is like a clock, and clocks are extremely accurate, watches must also be extremely accurate.
B)Nothing I say could change your mind, but I know that something could change your mind.So that something cannot be me saying anything.
C)I know that I had steak last night because I remember using a toothpick, and I only use toothpicks when I eat steak.
D)This patient will either need surgery or chemotherapy.But since she is on blood thinners, surgery would be too risky.Therefore it will have to be chemotherapy.
E)Unless I'm wrong, that is Venus on the horizon.And it is Venus, proving that I am not wrong.

Question 18

Suppose that an argument has several steps.Could some of the steps be deductive while others are inductive?

A)No, arguments must be entirely deductive or entirely inductive.
B)No, since the inductive steps would take away from the validity of the deductive steps.
C)Yes, any of the steps could be deductive or inductive.
D)Yes, but only if the final step is inductive.
E)Yes, but only if the final step is deductive.

Question 19

Which of the following is true?

A)It only takes one positive instance to prove that a generalization is true.
B)It takes many negative instances to prove that a generalization is false.
C)Instances tell us nothing about whether or not a generalization is true.
D)A large number of positive instances guarantee that a generalization is true.
E)It only takes one negative instance to prove that a generalization is false.

Question 20

Induction by complete enumeration occurs when:

A)a generalization is based on an examination of every instance
B)there are 100 or more premises in an argument
C)no one in a group of people disagrees with a generalization
D)a generalization is not supported by any evidence at all
E)an argument is based on an analogy

Question 21

Are mammary glands a necessary or sufficient condition for being a mammal?

A)necessary
B)sufficient
C)neither necessary nor sufficient
D)both necessary and sufficient
E)either necessary or sufficient, but not both

Question 22

Is not breathing for one minute a necessary or sufficient condition for being dead?

A)necessary
B)sufficient
C)neither necessary nor sufficient
D)both necessary and sufficient
E)either necessary or sufficient, but not both

Question 23

Which of the following is a necessary condition for celebrating someone's birthday?

A)That person must be present.
B)There must be a cake.
C)There must be singing.
D)That person must have been born.
E)That person must have friends or family.

Question 24

Is speaking Spanish a necessary or sufficient condition for being Mexican?

A)necessary
B)sufficient
C)neither necessary nor sufficient
D)both necessary and sufficient
E)either necessary or sufficient, but not both

Question 25

What would complete the following generalization most plausibly? All screws are:

A)threaded
B)metallic
C)between one and four inches long
D)available at Home Depot or Lowes
E)useful

Question 26

A given causal factor a is a necessary condition for an effect E when:

A)a is enough to guarantee that E occurs
B)E only occurs in the absence of a
C)E occurs more often than a occurs
D)a and E usually occur at the same time
E)E cannot occur without a

Question 27

I want to know why my bathroom floor is so wet.I know that some water gets on it when people step out of the shower, but there is an inch of water on my floor! So I conclude that some other factor is also responsible, possibly a leak in the plumbing.Which method did I use to determine this?

A)agreement
B)difference
C)joint method
D)concomitant variations
E)residues

Question 28

Which of the following is a necessary condition for playing the piano?

A)sheet music
B)lessons
C)a piano
D)well-tuned piano strings
E)an audience

Question 29

Which of the following is a sufficient condition for being a square?

A)having four sides
B)being a side of a cube
C)being a rectangle
D)having four angles
E)having sides of equal length

Question 30

Can an effect have more than one necessary condition?

A)Yes, but no more than two.
B)Yes, but no more than three.
C)Yes, there can be many necessary conditions.
D)No, since every effect has exactly one triggering event.
E)No, since that would also require more than one sufficient condition.

Question 31

Can the same causal factor be both a necessary and a sufficient condition of the effect?

A)Yes, because all sufficient conditions are also necessary conditions.
B)Yes, because some conditions are both necessary and sufficient.
C)Yes, because all necessary conditions are also sufficient conditions.
D)No, because by definition, sufficient conditions are unnecessary.
E)No, because by definition, necessary conditions are insufficient.

Question 32

Is winning a $200 million lottery a necessary or sufficient condition for being rich?

A)necessary
B)sufficient
C)neither necessary nor sufficient
D)both necessary and sufficient
E)either necessary or sufficient, but not both

Question 33

Which of the following is a sufficient condition for a candidate to be the winner of a presidential election?

A)being the most popular
B)running the best campaign
C)being the best leader
D)announcing that he/she has won
E)securing the most votes in the electoral college

Question 34

Suppose that we try very hard to find some disconfirming instances for a generalization, but can't find any.Can we still make a strong generalization?

A)No, a generalization requires disconfirming instances.(Thus the expression "the exception that proves the rule.")
B)No, because unless we have identified a disconfirming instance, our generalization will have confirmation bias.
C)No.We can draw a generalization, but it will not be strong.
D)Yes, because the absence of disconfirming instances supports the generalization.
E)Yes, because searching for disconfirming instances is not a very important part of making generalizations.

Question 35

Which of the following would complete this generalization most plausibly? All sunglasses are:

A)expensive
B)comfortable
C)fashionable
D)fragile
E)tinted

Question 36

I want to know which insect is eating my tomatoes.I notice that the tomato plants with ladybugs, butterflies, and moths are fine.The tomato plants with ladybugs, butterflies, moths, and caterpillars are partially eaten.So I conclude that the caterpillars are eating my tomatoes.Which method did I use to determine this?

A)agreement
B)difference
C)joint method
D)concomitant variations
E)residues

Question 37

A given causal factor a is a sufficient condition for an effect E when:

A)a is enough to guarantee that E occurs
B)E only occurs in the absence of a
C)E occurs more often than a occurs
D)a and E usually occur at the same time
E)E cannot occur without a

Question 38

If n is a necessary condition for an effect E, and s is a sufficient condition for the same effect, but E does not occur, we can conclude:

A)s did not occur
B)n did not occur
C)neither n nor s occurred
D)either s or n could have occurred, but not both
E)nothing about s or n

Question 39

Suppose that I want to make the generalization that all Americans who have served in the military are good marksmen.What would be the best way to go about looking for disconfirming instances?

A)Look at soldiers who have been wounded in battle.
B)Look at soldiers who suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder.
C)Look at soldiers who served fewer than four years in the military.
D)Look at soldiers who were prematurely discharged from the military.
E)Look at soldiers who belong to the Veterans of Foreign Wars.

Question 40

The third rule of generalization is that we should consider whether _____ in light of other knowledge we possess.

A)others will agree with the generalization
B)the generalization is culturally sensitive
C)a link between S and P is plausible
D)there is truly a need to make any generalization
E)S and P refer to real things

Question 41

I have observed that some of the bad smell in my house is caused by my cat.Which of the following observations would allow me to use the method of residues to show that there is a second cause of the bad smell?

A)finding a piece of rotting cheese under the refrigerator
B)pouring different amounts of sour milk onto surfaces in different rooms to see whether the smell changes or not
C)confining the cat to a bedroom and then observing how quickly the smell of the bedroom changes
D)cleaning the house thoroughly and then observing whether or not the smell changes
E)removing the cat from the house and then observing whether the bad smell remains

Question 42

Mill's method of residues is used when part of an effect (E) can already be explained by certain causal factors (such as a and b).It provides evidence for an additional causal factor, c, by:

A)directly observing c causing E
B)showing that E can still occur in the absence of a or b
C)showing that E can still occur when both a and b are absent
D)showing that c is more important than a or b
E)showing that a and b only explain part of E

Question 43

Does the method of residues show that a factor is a necessary or sufficient condition?

A)sufficient
B)necessary
C)neither necessary nor sufficient
D)both necessary and sufficient
E)necessary in one respect, but sufficient in another

Question 44

Mill's method of difference helps to identify causes by:

A)examining the differences between the suspected causal factor and the effect
B)examining cases in which the suspected cause is not present in order to see whether the effect still occurs
C)examining cases in which the suspected cause is present in order to see whether different effects occur
D)eliminating causal explanations about which most people disagree
E)eliminating causal explanations about which most experts disagree

Question 45

Suppose that I suspect that running my ceiling fan stirs up dust and causes my table to become dusty.How could I use the method of concomitant variations to confirm this?

A)Temporarily replace the table with a different table to see whether the new table also becomes dusty.
B)Remove the ceiling fan for a day to see whether the table still becomes dusty.
C)Observe whether running the fan for longer/shorter periods of time corresponds to greater/lesser amounts of dust on the table.
D)Vacuum the carpet and then observe whether the table still becomes dusty.
E)Test the air quality while the fan is running to see whether it has dust in it.

Question 46

Suppose that I suspect that the size of my pumpkins is primarily determined by the amount of sunlight each one receives.How could I use the method of concomitant variations to confirm this?

A)Grow all of my pumpkins in the garage to see whether they end up being smaller.
B)Grow one pumpkin in an exposed area, another in a somewhat shaded area, and another in a very shaded area to see whether their sizes differ.
C)Grow pumpkins from three different seed packets and then measure their sizes.
D)Give some pumpkins more water and some pumpkins less water and then observe their sizes in order to rule out watering as the cause.
E)Shine a flashlight on each pumpkin for one hour each night to see whether or not the pumpkins get bigger.

Question 47

Does the method of concomitant variations show that a factor is a necessary or sufficient condition?

A)sufficient
B)necessary
C)neither necessary nor sufficient
D)both necessary and sufficient
E)necessary in one respect, but sufficient in another

Question 48

Mill's method of concomitant variations helps to identify causes by observing:

A)whether adding additional factors results in an increase or decrease in the effect
B)whether an increase or decrease in the suspected cause results in an increase or decrease in the effect
C)a larger sample of instances
D)a more diverse sample of instances
E)whether the effect varies over time, while the suspected causal factor remains the same

Question 49

Which of the techniques for identifying causes is the only one that does not require us to have any initial knowledge or guesses about what causes the effect?

A)agreement
B)difference
C)joint method
D)concomitant variations
E)residues

Question 50

I want to know why there is so much water collecting in my basement.I know that the basement walls leak a little bit, allowing enough water in to stain the walls.But right now, even the carpeting is soggy.So I conclude that I also have a leaky pipe.Which method did I use to determine this?

A)agreement
B)difference
C)joint method
D)concomitant variations
E)residues

Question 51

Mill's method of agreement helps to identify causes by looking for:

A)the factor that most people agree is responsible for the effect
B)the factor that most experts agree is responsible for the effect
C)an explanation that is agreement with other known cause/effect relationships
D)a common factor that is present in all the cases in which the effect occurs
E)a common factor that is present throughout the whole world

Question 52

Marie and Pierre Curie were working with an ore that contained uranium, but found that its radioactivity was higher than could be explained by the uranium in it.What conclusion would be suggested by the method of residues?

A)The ore contained another radioactive element.
B)Uranium is not radioactive.
C)The uranium in the ore was different from other uranium.
D)The ore should be thrown away immediately and all of its residues cleaned up.
E)Radioactivity works differently than the Curies had previously believed.

Question 53

I want to know why my yard is so well lit at night.So I watch it over a period of several nights and notice that it is most well lit when the moon is full, less well lit at quarter moon, and most poorly lit at new moon.Therefore, I conclude that moonlight is principally responsible for lighting my yard at night.Which method did I use to determine this?

A)agreement
B)difference
C)joint method
D)concomitant variations
E)residues

Question 54

Suppose that we examine three cases in which the factors given below coincide with the occurrence of effect E.Which factor would the method of agreement suggest is responsible for E? Case 1: $a , b , c$
Case 2: $a , d , f$
Case 3: $a , g h$

A)a
B)b
C)d
D)g
E)b, c, d, e, f, or g

Question 55

Do the methods of agreement and difference show that factors are necessary or sufficient conditions?

A)Both methods show that they are sufficient.
B)Both methods show that they are necessary.
C)Agreement shows that they are necessary, difference that they are sufficient.
D)Agreement shows that they are sufficient, difference that they are necessary.
E)No, neither method shows that factors are necessary or sufficient.

Question 56

Suppose that we examine three cases in which the factors given below coincide with the occurrence of effect E.Which factor would the method of agreement suggest is responsible for E? Case 1: $b , c , f , j , l , o$
Case 2: $a , e , f , i , k , n , p$
Case 3: $d , f , g h , m$

A)c
B)f
C)l
D)o
E)p