Question 1

If we wish to make a generalization that "all S are P," how various should our sample be?

Accepted Answer

A) It must include examples of Ss that are P, and also Ss that are not P. 
B) It must include every member of the S class. 
C) It must include every member of the P class. 
D) It must include Ss that vary in every property that might be responsible for their being P. 
E) It must include only Ss that are quite similar to each other. 
A) It must include examples of Ss that are P, and also Ss that are not P. 
B) It must include every member of the S class. 
C) It must include every member of the P class. 
D) It must include Ss that vary in every property that might be responsible for their being P. 
E) It must include only Ss that are quite similar to each other. D

Question 2

Is winning a $200 million lottery a necessary or sufficient condition for being rich?

Accepted Answer

A) necessary 
B) sufficient 
C) neither necessary nor sufficient 
D) both necessary and sufficient 
E) either necessary or sufficient, but not both 
A) necessary 
B) sufficient 
C) neither necessary nor sufficient 
D) both necessary and sufficient 
E) either necessary or sufficient, but not both B

Question 3

A given causal factor a is a necessary condition for an effect E when:

Accepted Answer

A) a is enough to guarantee that E occurs 
B) E only occurs in the absence of a 
C) E occurs more often than a occurs 
D) a and E usually occur at the same time 
E) E cannot occur without a 
A) a is enough to guarantee that E occurs 
B) E only occurs in the absence of a 
C) E occurs more often than a occurs 
D) a and E usually occur at the same time 
E) E cannot occur without a E

Question 4

Which of the following would complete this generalization most plausibly? All sunglasses are:

Accepted Answer

A) expensive 
B) comfortable 
C) fashionable 
D) fragile 
E) tinted 
A) expensive 
B) comfortable 
C) fashionable 
D) fragile 
E) tinted

Question 5

Which of the following is true?

Accepted Answer

A) It only takes one positive instance to prove that a generalization is true. 
B) It takes many negative instances to prove that a generalization is false. 
C) Instances tell us nothing about whether or not a generalization is true. 
D) A large number of positive instances guarantee that a generalization is true. 
E) It only takes one negative instance to prove that a generalization is false. 
A) It only takes one positive instance to prove that a generalization is true. 
B) It takes many negative instances to prove that a generalization is false. 
C) Instances tell us nothing about whether or not a generalization is true. 
D) A large number of positive instances guarantee that a generalization is true. 
E) It only takes one negative instance to prove that a generalization is false.

Question 6

Are mammary glands a necessary or sufficient condition for being a mammal?

Accepted Answer

A) necessary 
B) sufficient 
C) neither necessary nor sufficient 
D) both necessary and sufficient 
E) either necessary or sufficient, but not both 
A) necessary 
B) sufficient 
C) neither necessary nor sufficient 
D) both necessary and sufficient 
E) either necessary or sufficient, but not both

Question 7

I want to know why my bathroom floor is so wet.I know that some water gets on it when people step out of the shower, but there is an inch of water on my floor! So I conclude that some other factor is also responsible, possibly a leak in the plumbing.Which method did I use to determine this?

Accepted Answer

A) agreement 
B) difference 
C) joint method 
D) concomitant variations 
E) residues 
A) agreement 
B) difference 
C) joint method 
D) concomitant variations 
E) residues

Question 8

When we look for and give weight to evidence supporting a conclusion, while ignoring, downplaying, or failing to seek evidence against it, that is called:

Accepted Answer

A) confirmation bias 
B) disconfirmation bias 
C) inductive invalidity 
D) myopic induction 
E) false generalization 
A) confirmation bias 
B) disconfirmation bias 
C) inductive invalidity 
D) myopic induction 
E) false generalization

Question 9

Can a strong generalization about a group of things ever be based on a single instance?

Accepted Answer

A) Yes, if there is good reason to think that the instance is representative of the whole group. 
B) Yes, if the instance is the only one available. 
C) Yes, if the generalization is already believed to be true by most people. 
D) No, because a single instance by itself never has any observable properties. 
E) No, because the instance will always be very different from other instances in the group. 
A) Yes, if there is good reason to think that the instance is representative of the whole group. 
B) Yes, if the instance is the only one available. 
C) Yes, if the generalization is already believed to be true by most people. 
D) No, because a single instance by itself never has any observable properties. 
E) No, because the instance will always be very different from other instances in the group.

Question 10

I want to know which insect is eating my tomatoes.I notice that the tomato plants with ladybugs, butterflies, and moths are fine.The tomato plants with ladybugs, butterflies, moths, and caterpillars are partially eaten.So I conclude that the caterpillars are eating my tomatoes.Which method did I use to determine this?

Accepted Answer

A) agreement 
B) difference 
C) joint method 
D) concomitant variations 
E) residues 
A) agreement 
B) difference 
C) joint method 
D) concomitant variations 
E) residues

Question 11

Does the method of residues show that a factor is a necessary or sufficient condition?

Accepted Answer

A) sufficient 
B) necessary 
C) neither necessary nor sufficient 
D) both necessary and sufficient 
E) necessary in one respect, but sufficient in another 
A) sufficient 
B) necessary 
C) neither necessary nor sufficient 
D) both necessary and sufficient 
E) necessary in one respect, but sufficient in another

Question 12

Suppose that I am a professional linguist with a specialization in African languages and I want to make the generalization that all African languages have an "S" sound.What would be the best way to go about looking for disconfirming instances?

Accepted Answer

A) Listen to languages spoken in Nigeria, where there are more languages than anywhere else in Africa. 
B) Listen to six languages from north Africa and six languages from sub-Saharan Africa. 
C) Listen to obscure languages that I've never studied from different parts of Africa. 
D) Listen to the languages spoken in the four most populous countries of Africa. 
E) Listen to the most well-known and documented languages of Africa. 
A) Listen to languages spoken in Nigeria, where there are more languages than anywhere else in Africa. 
B) Listen to six languages from north Africa and six languages from sub-Saharan Africa. 
C) Listen to obscure languages that I've never studied from different parts of Africa. 
D) Listen to the languages spoken in the four most populous countries of Africa. 
E) Listen to the most well-known and documented languages of Africa.

Question 13

Suppose that I want to make the generalization that all college freshmen in America are financially dependent on their parents.Which of the following samples would be the best basis?

Accepted Answer

A) the freshman class at Harvard University 
B) a random sampling of 2% of American college freshmen 
C) freshmen who respond to a survey advertised on nationwide radio 
D) the national freshman membership of the Delta Omicron Gamma fraternity 
E) five students from the largest college in each state 
A) the freshman class at Harvard University 
B) a random sampling of 2% of American college freshmen 
C) freshmen who respond to a survey advertised on nationwide radio 
D) the national freshman membership of the Delta Omicron Gamma fraternity 
E) five students from the largest college in each state

Question 14

Do the methods of agreement and difference show that factors are necessary or sufficient conditions?

Accepted Answer

A) Both methods show that they are sufficient. 
B) Both methods show that they are necessary. 
C) Agreement shows that they are necessary, difference that they are sufficient. 
D) Agreement shows that they are sufficient, difference that they are necessary. 
E) No, neither method shows that factors are necessary or sufficient. 
A) Both methods show that they are sufficient. 
B) Both methods show that they are necessary. 
C) Agreement shows that they are necessary, difference that they are sufficient. 
D) Agreement shows that they are sufficient, difference that they are necessary. 
E) No, neither method shows that factors are necessary or sufficient.

Question 15

Induction by complete enumeration occurs when:

Accepted Answer

A) a generalization is based on an examination of every instance 
B) there are 100 or more premises in an argument 
C) no one in a group of people disagrees with a generalization 
D) a generalization is not supported by any evidence at all 
E) an argument is based on an analogy 
A) a generalization is based on an examination of every instance 
B) there are 100 or more premises in an argument 
C) no one in a group of people disagrees with a generalization 
D) a generalization is not supported by any evidence at all 
E) an argument is based on an analogy

Question 16

Which of the following is a sufficient condition for being a square?

Accepted Answer

A) having four sides 
B) being a side of a cube 
C) being a rectangle 
D) having four angles 
E) having sides of equal length 
A) having four sides 
B) being a side of a cube 
C) being a rectangle 
D) having four angles 
E) having sides of equal length

Question 17

Can an effect have more than one necessary condition?

Accepted Answer

A) Yes, but no more than two. 
B) Yes, but no more than three. 
C) Yes, there can be many necessary conditions. 
D) No, since every effect has exactly one triggering event. 
E) No, since that would also require more than one sufficient condition. 
A) Yes, but no more than two. 
B) Yes, but no more than three. 
C) Yes, there can be many necessary conditions. 
D) No, since every effect has exactly one triggering event. 
E) No, since that would also require more than one sufficient condition.

Question 18

The second rule of generalization is that we should look for _____ as well as _____ instances of a generalization.

Accepted Answer

A) large; small 
B) disconfirming; confirming 
C) theoretical; practical 
D) controversial; noncontroversial 
E) real; imagined 
A) large; small 
B) disconfirming; confirming 
C) theoretical; practical 
D) controversial; noncontroversial 
E) real; imagined

Question 19

Suppose that I suspect that the size of my pumpkins is primarily determined by the amount of sunlight each one receives.How could I use the method of concomitant variations to confirm this?

Accepted Answer

A) Grow all of my pumpkins in the garage to see whether they end up being smaller. 
B) Grow one pumpkin in an exposed area, another in a somewhat shaded area, and another in a very shaded area to see whether their sizes differ. 
C) Grow pumpkins from three different seed packets and then measure their sizes. 
D) Give some pumpkins more water and some pumpkins less water and then observe their sizes in order to rule out watering as the cause. 
E) Shine a flashlight on each pumpkin for one hour each night to see whether or not the pumpkins get bigger. 
A) Grow all of my pumpkins in the garage to see whether they end up being smaller. 
B) Grow one pumpkin in an exposed area, another in a somewhat shaded area, and another in a very shaded area to see whether their sizes differ. 
C) Grow pumpkins from three different seed packets and then measure their sizes. 
D) Give some pumpkins more water and some pumpkins less water and then observe their sizes in order to rule out watering as the cause. 
E) Shine a flashlight on each pumpkin for one hour each night to see whether or not the pumpkins get bigger.

Question 20

Which of the following is an example of induction?

Accepted Answer

A) Carson has been tearing up the house at night, so he should sleep in his doghouse tonight. 
B) Lions, cheetahs, and house cats all have whiskers.This suggests that all felines have whiskers. 
C) Whenever my aunt visits, we have a good conversation.Given that she is coming this weekend, I'm expecting good conversation this weekend. 
D) This has got to be chicken, because it's got the texture of chicken or turkey but it doesn't have the same dry aftertaste that turkey has. 
E) Without fire, our ancestors could not have survived in this climate.Thus it is clear that our ancestors had fire. 
A) Carson has been tearing up the house at night, so he should sleep in his doghouse tonight. 
B) Lions, cheetahs, and house cats all have whiskers.This suggests that all felines have whiskers. 
C) Whenever my aunt visits, we have a good conversation.Given that she is coming this weekend, I'm expecting good conversation this weekend. 
D) This has got to be chicken, because it's got the texture of chicken or turkey but it doesn't have the same dry aftertaste that turkey has. 
E) Without fire, our ancestors could not have survived in this climate.Thus it is clear that our ancestors had fire.

If we wish to make a generalization that "all S are P," how various should our sample be?

Is winning a $200 million lottery a necessary or sufficient condition for being rich?

A given causal factor a is a necessary condition for an effect E when:

Which of the following would complete this generalization most plausibly? All sunglasses are:

Which of the following is true?

Are mammary glands a necessary or sufficient condition for being a mammal?

I want to know why my bathroom floor is so wet.I know that some water gets on it when people step out of the shower, but there is an inch of water on my floor! So I conclude that some other factor is also responsible, possibly a leak in the plumbing.Which method did I use to determine this?

When we look for and give weight to evidence supporting a conclusion, while ignoring, downplaying, or failing to seek evidence against it, that is called:

Can a strong generalization about a group of things ever be based on a single instance?

Does the method of residues show that a factor is a necessary or sufficient condition?

Suppose that I am a professional linguist with a specialization in African languages and I want to make the generalization that all African languages have an "S" sound.What would be the best way to go about looking for disconfirming instances?

Suppose that I want to make the generalization that all college freshmen in America are financially dependent on their parents.Which of the following samples would be the best basis?

Do the methods of agreement and difference show that factors are necessary or sufficient conditions?

Induction by complete enumeration occurs when:

Which of the following is a sufficient condition for being a square?

Can an effect have more than one necessary condition?

The second rule of generalization is that we should look for _ as well as _ instances of a generalization.

Suppose that I suspect that the size of my pumpkins is primarily determined by the amount of sunlight each one receives.How could I use the method of concomitant variations to confirm this?

Which of the following is an example of induction?

Classification

Definitions

Propositions

Argument Analysis

Fallacies

Categorical Propositions

Categorical Syllogisms

Reasoning With Syllogisms

Propositional Logic-Propositions

Propositional Logic-Arguments

Predicate Logic

Argument by Analogy

Statistical Reasoning

Explanation

Probability

Filters

Exam 12: Inductive Generalizations

If we wish to make a generalization that "all S are P," how various should our sample be?

Is winning a $200 million lottery a necessary or sufficient condition for being rich?

A given causal factor a is a necessary condition for an effect E when:

Which of the following would complete this generalization most plausibly? All sunglasses are:

Which of the following is true?

Are mammary glands a necessary or sufficient condition for being a mammal?

I want to know why my bathroom floor is so wet.I know that some water gets on it when people step out of the shower, but there is an inch of water on my floor! So I conclude that some other factor is also responsible, possibly a leak in the plumbing.Which method did I use to determine this?

When we look for and give weight to evidence supporting a conclusion, while ignoring, downplaying, or failing to seek evidence against it, that is called:

Can a strong generalization about a group of things ever be based on a single instance?

Does the method of residues show that a factor is a necessary or sufficient condition?

Suppose that I am a professional linguist with a specialization in African languages and I want to make the generalization that all African languages have an "S" sound.What would be the best way to go about looking for disconfirming instances?

Suppose that I want to make the generalization that all college freshmen in America are financially dependent on their parents.Which of the following samples would be the best basis?

Do the methods of agreement and difference show that factors are necessary or sufficient conditions?

Induction by complete enumeration occurs when:

Which of the following is a sufficient condition for being a square?

Can an effect have more than one necessary condition?

The second rule of generalization is that we should look for _____ as well as _____ instances of a generalization.

Suppose that I suspect that the size of my pumpkins is primarily determined by the amount of sunlight each one receives.How could I use the method of concomitant variations to confirm this?

Which of the following is an example of induction?

Classification

Definitions

Propositions

Argument Analysis

Fallacies

Categorical Propositions

Categorical Syllogisms

Reasoning With Syllogisms

Propositional Logic-Propositions

Propositional Logic-Arguments

Predicate Logic

Argument by Analogy

Statistical Reasoning

Explanation

Probability

Filters

The second rule of generalization is that we should look for _ as well as _ instances of a generalization.