Deck 8: General Knowledge

Question 1

"Marie received seven presents at her birthday party. The stuffed elephant was her favorite gift." If you believe that one of the seven presents that Marie received was, in fact, a stuffed elephant, you have made

A) an attribution error.
B) an inference.
C) an episodic mistake.
D) a script.

Answer 1

B

Question 2

According to the prototype approach to semantic memory,

A) every item that meets the specified requirements of a category belongs to that category.
B) a prototype is an example of the category that is neither the best example, nor the worst example.
C) we judge whether an item is similar to the prototype in order to decide whether it belongs to a category.
D) nonprototypes are items that do not belong to any category.

Answer 2

C

Question 3

Which of the following students provides the best description of semantic memory?

A) Wei-Hang: "Semantic memory allows us to link each concept with an example from episodic memory."
B) Andy: "Semantic memory refers to our organized knowledge about the world."
C) Alexia: "Semantic memory forces us to notice-and exaggerate-the precise details that make one concept different from another."
D) Yelena: "Semantic memory forces us to take each schema that is stored and convert it into a script-like form."

Answer 3

B

Question 4

Which of the following provides the best example of semantic memory?

A) Knowing what you ate for breakfast today
B) Knowing the definition of the word "concept"
C) Knowing where you went for dinner on your last birthday
D) Knowing how old you were when you first visited Disney World

Question 5

The term semantic memory can be defined as

A) events that happened in one's own life.
B) information that can be associated with a certain date in the past.
C) knowledge in one's own area of expertise.
D) our well-organized knowledge about the world.

Question 6

Suppose that you and a friend have been discussing cognitive psychology. You are more likely to respond quickly to the concept "semantic memory" than if you had been discussing basketball. This would be an example of

A) the false alarm effect.
B) the network effect
C) the prototype effect.
D) the semantic priming effect.

Question 7

According to the chapter called "General Knowledge," an important point is that this knowledge

A) allows us to make inferences based on logical interpretations.
B) is almost always implicit, rather than explicit.
C) is usually available only to people with expertise in the specified area.
D) is primarily constructed by combining information in our working memory.

Question 8

According to the discussion of categories, the basic level of reference has special status. This means that

A) the basic level is more likely than other levels to show family resemblance.
B) basic-level names are used more often and they are more informative than the superordinate-level names.
C) the basic level is the most general label that can be supplied.
D) basic-level names are prototypes, whereas superordinate- and subordinate-level names are not.

Question 9

The category "furniture" is a

A) prototype.
B) superordinate-level category.
C) basic-level category.
D) subordinate-level category.

Question 10

Which of the following students provides the best definition of the term "inference," in connection with the discussion of semantic memory in Chapter 8?

A) Don: "An inference refers to those conclusions and logical implications that people make, even when they were never directly stated in the original stimulus."
B) Javier: "An inference is the grammatical structure of a sentence, in both written and spoken language."
C) Polina: "An inference occurs when one speaker stops talking, and another begins to speak."
D) Lindsey: "An inference is basically an alternate term for the word validity."

Question 11

In Chapter 8, how is the term "situated cognition approach" related to the concept of "knowledge?"

A) We use the situated cognition approach when we need to think about graded structures.
B) The situated cognition approach is a central part of the parallel distributed processing approach.
C) The situated cognition approach proposes that cues from our immediate environment help us to code a concept.
D) The situated cognition approach helps us to distinguish between categories and concepts.

Question 12

The well-organized knowledge that you have about the world is called

A) declarative memory.
B) implicit memory.
C) explicit memory.
D) semantic memory.

Question 13

Which of the following students has the most accurate information about the research on levels of categorization?

A) Stacy: "We use family-resemblance names in order to identify objects."
B) Midori: "Members of superordinate-level concepts are especially likely to produce the priming effect."
C) Scott: "Brain imaging research shows that the prefrontal cortex is activated when people judge superordinate terms; it is less active with basic-level terms."
D) Rasa: "Experts and novices both use basic-level terms more than subordinate-level terms."

Question 14

The category "animal" has a graded structure, which means that

A) most of the examples are well known to the general public.
B) the members of that category are not all equally representative of that category.
C) procedural knowledge is more important than declarative knowledge.
D) there is a family resemblance among the members of this category.

Question 15

Which of the following is an example of a subordinate-level category?

A) Apple Macintosh computer
B) Computer
C) Electronic devices
D) Things you find in an office

Question 16

According to the discussion in Chapter 8, the best definition of the word concept is:

A) a specific set of objects that belong together.
B) your mental representation of a category.
C) the best example of a particular category.
D) the information in your immediate environment, which contributes to your general knowledge.

Question 17

Chapter 8 discusses the term "graded structure" in connection with the prototype theory of semantic memory. The best example of this term is

A) the observation that we frequently make spontaneous generalizations.
B) the structure of our knowledge during the tip-of-the-tongue effect.
C) the arrangement of words in a specific category, from most prototypical to least prototypical.
D) the fact that the terms "concept" and "category" are related but somewhat different from each other.

Question 18

The category "Bartlett pear" is a

A) episodic-memory category.
B) superordinate-level category.
C) basic-level category.
D) subordinate-level category.

Question 19

Research on the idea of "family resemblance" has demonstrated that

A) in a family resemblance category, there must be at least one attribute that is shared by all examples of that concept.
B) a prototype is equivalent to a family resemblance category.
C) in a family resemblance category, each example has at least one attribute in common with some other example of the concept.
D) family resemblance categories are artificial, and they are found more often in the laboratory than in real life.

Question 20

If you have just heard the word vegetable, you can quickly make judgments about the word carrot; in contrast, your judgments about the word mushroom take much longer. According to the prototype approach, this observation shows that

A) family resemblance is stronger for prototypes than for nonprototypes.
B) prototypes are items that have the smallest number of connection weights.
C) after priming, people respond faster to prototypes than to nonprototypes.
D) basic-level categories are judged more quickly than superordinate-level categories.

Question 21

The exemplar approach to concepts suggests that our categories are based on

A) the most typical items.
B) less typical items as well as highly typical items.
C) family resemblance.
D) the pattern of connections between the members of a category.

Question 22

The exemplar approach to semantic memory proposes that

A) exemplars are stored at the basic level; nonexemplars are stored at the subordinate level.
B) an exemplar is an idealized example of a category, derived by taking an average of the members of that category.
C) experts make better use of exemplars, whereas novices make better use of prototypes.
D) we store a number of examples for each concept; to classify a new stimulus, we compare it with this set of examples.

Question 23

The prototype approach to semantic memory works especially well in which of the following conditions?

A) When applied to a group of items that have no single characteristic in common
B) When explaining how we store details about each individual example of a category
C) When accounting for why experts and nonexperts differ with respect to their use of subordinate-level categories
D) When pointing out why people believe that some categories have clear-cut boundaries, rather than fuzzy boundaries

Question 24

According to John Anderson's theories of semantic memory and other aspects of cognitive processes,

A) each of the components of cognition operates independently.
B) every concept in a proposition can be represented by a network of connections.
C) the term spreading activation refers to our knowledge about facts and things.
D) each item in semantic memory is listed according to its appropriate graded structure.

Question 25

Which of the following students provides the most accurate comparison between the prototype approach and the exemplar approach?

A) Tariq: "The prototype approach works well for concepts that are nouns, whereas the exemplar approach works well for concepts that are verbs, especially verbs that show action."
B) Clifford: "The prototype approach says that concepts are associated with one best example of a category; the exemplar approach says that concepts are associated with many specific examples of a category."
C) Ekaterina: "At first, researchers emphasized that these two approaches would be very different from each other; now researchers say that they are identical, when focusing on everyday objects and organisms."
D) Lynne: "The prototype approach emphasizes items that exist in real life; the exemplar approach emphasizes geometric figures that don't exist in real life.

Question 26

According to the discussion in Chapter 8, John Anderson's ACT-R theory

A) focuses on discovering how experts and novices categorize new objects.
B) explains how working memory processes semantic information; however, ACT-R theory is not currently concerned with the way this information is stored in long-term memory.
C) proposes that each concept in semantic memory can be described in terms of a list of characteristics that its members must possess.
D) attempts to explain processes such as language, reasoning and decision making-in addition to semantic memory.

Question 27

Chapter 8 discussed in some detail the research by Heit and Barsalou about students' understanding of the concept "animal." If this research could be generalized to the concept "fruit," you would expect to find that

A) experts considered prototypical fruits to be oranges and apples, whereas novices considered those fruits to be nonprototypical.
B) the less common fruits would be more likely to show spontaneous generalization.
C) the concept "fruit" includes some uncommon fruits as well as some prototypes.
D) spreading activation is the most useful mechanism for understanding the meaning of "fruit."

Question 28

Which of the following is the best example of a single proposition?

A) Actor Alan Rickman portrayed "Snape" in the Harry Potter movies.
B) Author Dean Koontz has written many best-selling suspense novels.
C) The Chicago Cubs baseball team play in ivy-covered Wrigley Field.
D) Peter Dinklage is an actor.

Question 29

The parallel distributed processing approach would be most closely affiliated with which of the following approaches to semantic memory?

A) Network models
B) The prototype approach
C) The exemplar approach
D) The schema approach

Question 30

Research by Novick examined whether the meaning of airplane changed for U.S. students around the time of the 2001 terrorist attacks. According to this research,

A) airplane became a more prototypical example of a vehicle shortly after the attacks, but it was judged less prototypical about 4 months later.
B) the number of connection weights for airplane decreased at the time of the attacks, but soon afterwards, the number of connection weights increased.
C) shortly after the attacks, airplane shifted from being a prototype to becoming an exemplar.
D) for experts, the meaning of airplane changed significantly; for novices, the meaning remained stable.

Question 31

According to the network models of semantic memory,

A) activation expands from the node that has been activated, extending outward to other related nodes.
B) only a small number of nodes are connected with other nodes
C) nonprototypes are just as important as prototypes.
D) each item is compared with a prototype to determine the category to which it belongs.

Question 32

Which of the following students provides the most accurate information about the prototype approach to semantic memory?

A) Elisabeth: "People store an abstract representation of each basic-level category."
B) Lester: "The prototype approach applies only to inanimate objects."
C) Horatio: "The data on the semantic-priming effect are not consistent with the prototype approach."
D) Joni: "Superordinate terms tend to activate different regions of the cortex from the regions activated by basic-level terms."

Question 33

In the name parallel distributed processing approach, the word distributed refers to

A) the distribution of information across many locations in the brain.
B) the distribution of attention while processing memorable material.
C) spontaneous generalization, or remembering material that was not initially learned.
D) the simultaneous processing of several ideas.

Question 34

According to Anderson and colleagues, the smallest unit of knowledge that people can judge to be either true or false is called a

A) schema.
B) proposition.
C) prototype.
D) exemplar.

Question 35

Which of the approaches to semantic memory emphasizes that our memory stores many specific members of a category?

A) The prototype approach
B) The schema approach
C) The parallel distributed processing approach
D) The exemplar approach

Question 36

According to your textbook, Anderson's ACT-R theory

A) is broader in scope than the prototype approach or the exemplar approach.
B) points out that higher mental processes require insight and the reorganization of large bodies of information.
C) emphasizes that procedural knowledge is roughly comparable to semantic memory.
D) argues that semantic memory is basically organized into a series of hierarchies.

Question 37

Which of the following students provides the best description for how John Anderson's model of semantic memory accounts for our long-term learning?

A) Xianming: "By practicing, we can strengthen the links between two concepts."
B) Joan: "Working memory has a capacity that is potentially unlimited; learning basically increases the capacity of working memory."
C) Tashica: "If many links are activated at the same time, each of these links is greatly strengthened-even more than if only one link is activated."
D) Dan: "Through learning, our exemplars become increasingly strengthened."

Question 38

How do the prototype approach and the exemplar approach differ from each other?

A) The prototype approach emphasizes that all examples of a concept are equally good.
B) The exemplar approach represents a concept in terms of many specific examples of a concept.
C) The exemplar approach focuses on the most frequently encountered example of a concept.
D) The exemplar approach argues that an exemplar is an idealized example, based on all members of a category.

Question 39

The exemplar approach to semantic memory is especially relevant

A) when you want to emphasize how various concepts are related to each other.
B) when the categories are very fluid and not very clearly defined.
C) when all of the items are low-frequency nouns.
D) when a category has a relatively small number of members.

Question 40

When we compare network models with the prototype approach, we find that network models

A) place more emphasis on a graded structure.
B) are better in describing how prototypical items are processed.
C) make better use of the sentence verification technique.
D) are more likely to emphasize how different members of a category are related to one another.

Question 41

What is the current status of the parallel distributed processing approach?

A) It was popular when the Atkinson-Shiffrin model was judged to be too rigid, but it is no longer prominent.
B) Research shows that it has no neurological support.
C) Many cognitive psychologists are hopeful that PDP research may provide important links between psychology and neuroscience.
D) It is so limited in scope that it probably will not remain popular for long.

Question 42

The parallel distributed processing approach

A) is not consistent with the neurological properties of the brain.
B) is especially strong in explaining how we solve problems.
C) provides a comprehensive explanation for our ability to remember earlier material, even though that material was replaced by more recent information.
D) emphasizes the growth in the strength of connections among items during the process of learning.

Question 43

According to the discussion of the parallel distributed processing approach to memory, the term default assignment means that

A) we can figure out missing information about someone or something, based on information about similar people or things.
B) the item in the neural network that receives the greatest amount of stimulation receives the default assignment.
C) when our information about something is defective or faulty, we seldom experience an activated network.
D) we can use attributes (such as an object's shape) to locate material in memory.

Question 44

According to the parallel distributed processing model of semantic memory, how does spontaneous generalization differ from default assignment?

A) In spontaneous generalization, we make a more conscious effort to draw inferences.
B) In spontaneous generalization, we can only account for conditioning (e.g., classical conditioning), whereas default assignment is a more sophisticated process.
C) Spontaneous generalization takes place in long-term memory; default assignment takes place in working memory.
D) In spontaneous generalization, we draw a conclusion about an entire category; in default assignment, we draw a conclusion about one member of a category.

Question 45

In the parallel distributed processing approach, learning basically involves

A) graceful degradation.
B) spontaneous inhibition of default assignments.
C) spontaneous generalization to new nodes in the network.
D) the strengthening of connections among relevant nodes.

Question 46

Which of the following statements about the parallel distributed processing approach is correct?

A) When one unit is stimulated, all the units that are connected with it are simultaneously inhibited.
B) When one unit is stimulated, all the other units are automatically given a default assignment.
C) When one unit reaches an appropriate activation level, it can either inhibit or excite other units to which it is connected.
D) At any given time, numerous serial operations are proceeding at the same time through several portions of the cortex.

Question 47

Which of the following descriptions serves as the best metaphor for the parallel distributed processing approach?

A) A drawer with three compartments
B) A computer that uses a serial approach.
C) A net with many interconnections
D) A safe that can be opened by only one combination code

Question 48

One of the major ideas behind the parallel distributed processing approach to memory is that

A) if one piece of information is missing, we cannot continue to perform the task.
B) our memory for individuals is stored in terms of a hierarchy, from the most general to the most specific information.
C) we can show spontaneous generalization, figuring out information about a group of people, based on information about the individual members of that group.
D) general knowledge is stored in sensory memory and working memory, rather than in long-term memory.

Question 49

In explaining semantic memory, the parallel distributed processing approach

A) argues that we consider an item's attributes one at a time.
B) points out that we can often identify an object, even if one of the clues to that object's identification is incorrect.
C) proposes that human memory is more rigid than previous theories have suggested.
D) emphasizes that the mind works in a linear fashion, moving from a stimulus to a response.

Question 50

According to the discussion of schemas in Chapter 8,

A) a schema applies to your generalized knowledge, such as knowledge about how to register for classes at your college.
B) a schema can be divided into smaller units of knowledge, called "scripts."
C) each person in a particular culture has a schema for an everyday event that is very different from other people's schemas for that event.
D) in most cases, a schema can be directly converted to an exemplar.

Question 51

Which of the following students' statements represents the best understanding of the concept of schemas?

A) Rosario: "Schemas are typically counterproductive, causing more errors than correct responses."
B) Dean: "Schemas help us anticipate what will happen in a situation."
C) Angelique: "Schemas refer to the order in which events occur, whereas scripts refer to the general characteristics of a situation."
D) Edgar: "Schemas are especially well developed for nonprototypical items."

Question 52

According to the parallel distributed processing approach to semantic memory,

A) concepts are linked together in a chain, and activation can move down that chain while we are thinking about this concept.
B) several patterns of activation can proceed at the same time.
C) when we think about a particular concept, the nonprototypes are activated at the exact same time as the prototypes.
D) each concept is associated with 10-12 stable attributes that do not change.

Question 53

In the parallel distributed processing approach, the concept called "spontaneous generalization" means that

A) the connection weights determine the level of activation that is passed between the nodes in a network.
B) we make generalizations, based on a fairly large number of exemplars.
C) we can use individual cases to draw conclusions about some general information.
D) experts store information in nodes, whereas novices store them in individual neurons.

Question 54

A basic principle that lies at the core of the parallel distributed processing approach is that

A) we cannot remember information unless it has been recently processed.
B) the longer something remains in memory, the more likely it is to be forgotten.
C) neuron-like units are connected with each other by a system of networks.
D) material that we acquired intentionally will be retained better than material acquired by incidental learning.

Question 55

One feature of the parallel distributed processing approach is called spontaneous generalization. Which of the following is an example of this principle?

A) You can recall a person's complete name more effectively when given a first name than when given a last name.
B) You decide, based on people whom you know, that people from the Midwest are friendlier than people from New England.
C) You can find someone's house, even though you were told it was white, rather than pale yellow.
D) You assign different connection weights to more recently acquired information than to information you acquired long ago.

Question 56

The parallel distributed processing approach to memory accounts for the way people make default assignments. If you were to make a default assignment about a woman you do not know very well, you might

A) assume that she is guilty of a crime, even if she is not.
B) insist that you heard information about her, even if you did not.
C) forget relevant information that you actually heard about her.
D) believe that she is fairly sophisticated, because she comes from a large city.

Question 57

If an important component of your television set is defective, the television will not operate, even if all the other parts are in good working order. According to the parallel distributed processing approach,

A) memory is similar; for instance, if the short-term store is not working, an item will not be recalled.
B) memory is similar; for instance, a defect in one component spreads to other components.
C) memory is different; for instance, the functioning parts help to heal the defective part.
D) memory is different; for instance, memory can often operate, even if some of the input is inappropriate.

Question 58

Suppose you are thinking about a male student whom you met during your first year of college. You can recall that he knew your high school English teacher, that he didn't like his roommate, that he was average height and weight, and he wore glasses-but you cannot remember his name. This situation is an example of

A) graceful degradation.
B) spontaneous generalization.
C) serial processing.
D) default assignment.

Question 59

Which concept can help to explain stereotyping?

A) Exemplars
B) Priming
C) Spontaneous generalization
D) Connection weights

Question 60

Suppose you meet someone, and you can recall both her face and her name, but you cannot recall exactly where you first met her. In terms of parallel distributed processing, this phenomenon would be called

A) graceful degradation.
B) reassignment of connection weights.
C) spontaneous generalization.
D) a default assignment.

Question 61

According to the research on scripts,

A) the structure of a script is very similar to the structure of a prototype.
B) scripts do not seem to have a specific chronological structure.
C) a person's recall is enhanced if a script is identified at the beginning of a description.
D) experts and novices have similar understanding of a script's structure.

Question 62

Suppose that some research participants are asked to remember a story. Furthermore, this story contains some particularly vivid and surprising material that is not consistent with a standard schema. The participants would be most likely

A) to show spreading activation to schema-inconsistent material.
B) to emphasize prototypical information.
C) to prefer scripts to schemas.
D) to recall the schema-inconsistent material.

Question 63

Imagine that you are taking an art history course. You're thinking about a painting that you liked, especially because the artist captured a woman's facial expression very skillfully. You remember that you saw this woman's entire face, but then you check the painting. Actually, part of her face is hidden from view. What concept in the description of schemas is most similar to this incident?

A) The pragmatic approach
B) A script
C) An implicit-memory task
D) Boundary extension

Question 64

Chapter 8 described a study in which participants stayed briefly in an office. Later, their recall showed that

A) when people have a schema for a scene, their recall is typically accurate.
B) people with little expertise on a topic are likely to have particularly clear-cut schemas for that topic.
C) people are likely to recall objects and events that are consistent with the schema.
D) schemas usually reduce our memory accuracy.

Question 65

Which of the following students provides the most accurate description of the way that boundary extension might operate in eyewitness testimony?

A) Daniel: "Each time the eyewitness retells the story, the boundary becomes increasingly well defined."
B) Nora: "In reality monitoring, eyewitnesses have difficulty establishing the boundary between events that actually happened and events that they simply imagined."
C) Dora María: "A lawyer can carefully manipulate the questions, so that eyewitnesses remember the inferences, rather than events that actually happened."
D) Augusto: "Eyewitnesses may believe that they saw a person's entire face, when part of the face was actually blocked from view."

Question 66

You walk into a movie theater lobby and are surprised to see a rack of clothing on sale in a corner. Your surprise is due to your _____ about movie theater lobbies.

A) exemplars
B) parallel processes
C) schema
D) tip-of-the-tongue effect

Question 67

Which of the following concepts is most closely associated with the term schema?

A) Heuristic
B) Nonprototype
C) Serial processing
D) Exemplar

Question 68

Think about the various approaches to general knowledge, as discussed in Chapter 8. Which of these approaches is most closely related to the concept of boundary extension?

A) The prototype approach
B) The exemplar approach
C) The parallel distributed processing (PDP) approach
D) The schema approach

Question 69

Suppose that you hear that Dr. Angela Smith is a clinical psychologist who uses schema therapy. You would expect that she is likely to work with clients by

A) figuring out some helpful new schemas that can replace harmful schemas that they had learned in the past.
B) asking them to listen to a series of words, each time supplying a word that is consistent with a schema.
C) trying to classify each person's psychological disorder according to a carefully developed set of schemas.
D) encouraging them to classify a series of ambiguous images.

Question 70

Suppose that you attend a lecture in which a psychologist says, "Memory is created by gathering together and integrating information from a variety of sources. After a memory has been formed, we cannot accurately recall the source of each memory component." This speaker would be most likely to endorse the ______________ view of memory.

A) constructive
B) boundary-extension
C) exemplar
D) pragmatic

Question 71

People are especially likely to remember schema-inconsistent material when

A) this material is ordinary and routine.
B) this material flows naturally from the earlier material
C) this material is not relevant for people's lives.
D) this material is surprising.

Question 72

In what way is the topic of boundary extension related to the topic of schemas?

A) Both of them describe a sequence of events that occur in a predictable order.
B) Both refer to situations where we can fill in missing information, either visual information or verbal information.
C) In both cases, we tend to recall schema-inconsistent information more accurately than schema-consistent information.
D) In both cases, the exemplar approach to semantic memory is more useful than the prototype approach to semantic memory.

Question 73

Suppose you are sitting in an art class, and you have been instructed to draw from memory the scene you see from a window in your own bedroom. Although you cannot actually see the top of a tree through the bedroom window, you still draw the complete tree. The error you have committed is called

A) episodic memory.
B) boundary extension.
C) change blindness.
D) a script error.

Question 74

If you are buying concert tickets at a box office, there are certain procedures and interactions that occur in a standard fashion. This sequence of events is known as

A) a script.
B) parallel distributed processing.
C) family resemblance.
D) an inference.

Question 75

Suppose that you want to bring your car to a garage for repairs. This procedure requires you to call for an appointment, drive to the appropriate location, leave your keys, and arrange for a time when you will return for your car. Cognitive psychologists call this sequence of actions

A) an exemplar.
B) a script.
C) a family resemblance.
D) a graded structure.

Question 76

According to the constructive model of memory,

A) people construct a hypothesis about what they expect to hear, and this concept guides speech perception.
B) listeners integrate information from individual sentences in order to construct more complex ideas.
C) sentences are joined together in memory, though the elements can be easily untangled.
D) we construct the meaning of a sentence by analyzing the sentence's components.

Question 77

Suppose that a researcher conducts a study on schemas. The results demonstrate that the participants blended information together from several sentences, rather than remembering the exact wording of each sentence. These results would support the

A) constructive model of memory.
B) exemplar view of concepts.
C) family-resemblance approach to concepts.
D) pragmatic view of memory.

Question 78

People tend to recall the events in a script more accurately if

A) they have not personally experienced the events described in the script.
B) the script is first generalized into a schema.
C) the script is identified at the beginning of the description.
D) the script is not a prototype.

Question 79

Suppose that a friend missed class and asks you to tell him, word for word, about the professor's description of the next assignment. Your description captures the basic message, even though none of your sentences are precisely what your professor said. This phenomenon is a good example of

A) abstraction.
B) boundary extension.
C) change blindness.
D) a script.

Question 80

According to research on memory for interrelated sentences,

A) people recall hearing many sentences that were never actually presented.
B) people's verbatim memory is generally close to perfect.
C) people often believe that they have heard a sentence before, even if the meaning of that sentence is very different from the original.
D) several minutes after the material has been presented, people usually cannot remember the general meaning of that material.