Deck 5: Pseudoscience, Science, and Evidence-Based Practice

Question 1

The predictions of astrologers and psychics found in newspapers and magazines seem to meet a criterion for classifying their field as a pseudoscience, in that their predictions are:

A) are vague and not specific.
B) often correct, although obscure.
C) based on predictions made by astronomers.
D) not based on the statements of authorities.

Answer 1

are vague and not specific.

Question 2

Often, proponents of pseudoscience neither revise nor reject their "theories" when those theories are not supported by research. Instead, they look for evidence that supports their theories and may rely on low-quality evidence for support. When distinguishing pseudoscience from science, this situation shows that proponents of pseudoscience:

A) often show a confirmatory bias.
B) often make arguments from ignorance.
C) make very vague predications.
D) use language that is not used in true sciences.

Answer 2

often show a confirmatory bias.

Question 3

Intelligent design claims that life was created by an intelligent entity, rather than evolving on Earth, and that proponents of evolutionary theory have not proven otherwise. The criterion for distinguishing science from pseudoscience being shown in this example is:

A) not systematically checking the outcomes of predictions and showing a confirmatory bias.
B) using low-quality evidence instead of supporting the claims with experiments and other higher-quality studies.
C) failing to make an argument because they are using low-quality evidence to support their claims.
D) incorrectly using general rules of reasoning such as arguing from possibility and reversing the burden of proof.

Answer 3

incorrectly using general rules of reasoning such as arguing from possibility and reversing the burden of proof.

Question 4

The fact that astrology has changed little in centuries despite research failing to support its predictions shows that, unlike science, astrology is not:

A) testable.
B) self-correcting.
C) parsimonious.
D) connected to other sciences.

Question 5

The text suggests that one reason why people in ancient times found patterns in the stars and planets that are not really there is that they were:

A) displaying visual pareidolia.
B) inappropriately using the representativeness heuristic.
C) illogical.
D) profiting from astrology.

Question 6

The field of _____ made observations that contributed to the development of the science of astronomy, even though it might now be considered a pseudoscience.

A) astrology
B) mesmerism
C) phrenology
D) alchemy

Question 7

Some people believe that a dramatized rebirthing procedure will simulate a real birth process and help a child "attach" to a new caregiver. Which thinking error are these people committing?

A) Sweeping generalization
B) Deductive logical fallacy
C) Inappropriate reasoning by representativeness
D) Post hoc reasoning

Question 8

People often find their horoscopes surprisingly accurate in describing their lives. Which statement is a key factor contributing to this acceptance?

A) Horoscopes are written in very general terms that could apply to many people.
B) Astrology is endorsed by many famous people, which makes it more convincing.
C) Horoscopes often deal with important events in peoples' lives that resonate with individuals.
D) Astrological theory is stated in obscure language and people do not question it.

Question 9

The text lists a number of reasons why it is important to study the difference between science and pseudoscience. One reason is that pseudoscientific practices, such as the rebirthing procedure, may cause harm. This reason is MOST related to the idea that:

A) learning about pseudoscience is emphasized in most science courses.
B) using an ineffective treatment is a violation of the APA ethical guidelines.
C) studying this difference may help one to learn about science and psychological practices.
D) pseudoscience and science require the use of different research design strategies.

Question 10

Psychologists heeding the ethical guidelines of the American Psychological Association would likely respond to the case of Candace Newmaker, an adopted child who died while undergoing a rebirthing procedure. These psychologists would take the position that Candace's therapists:

A) had the right to use whatever therapy they thought would help her because of a loophole in the guidelines.
B) were not responsible for the outcome because the outcome of any therapy cannot be accurately predicted.
C) violated ethical guidelines by using a therapy that caused harm and lacked effectiveness.
D) should have consulted with the APA and used a more effective treatment such as Thought Field Therapy.

Question 11

Astrology seems implausible given what is known, especially from research in:

A) linguistics and biology.
B) sociology and chemistry.
C) psychology and astronomy.
D) chemistry and alchemy.

Question 12

Information that claims to be scientific is MOST likely _____ when it is implausible, not supported by scientific evidence, and not based on the scientific method.

A) a psychological misconception
B) bad science
C) protoscience
D) pseudoscience

Question 13

The eighteenth-century scientific commission headed by Benjamin Franklin to study mesmerism concluded something similar to the modern view of hypnosis. Which conclusion from this study is TRUE?

A) Mesmerism is a special trance state with a distinct physiological pattern of response.
B) Mesmerism results from the suggestions of the mesmerist and the imagination of the mesmerized person.
C) Mesmerism involves the movement of a magnetic force through the nerves of the mesmerized person.
D) Mesmerists can control the minds of mesmerized persons and get them to engage immoral acts that they would not otherwise commit.

Question 14

Proponents of pseudoscience rely on anecdotes, statements of authority, and testimonials. This tendency shows that proponents of pseudoscience:

A) do not make specific testable hypotheses.
B) do not systematically check the outcomes of predictions.
C) use logical criteria inappropriately or capriciously.
D) rely on low-quality evidence.

Question 15

Which statement is true about distinguishing science from pseudoscience?

A) Pseudoscientific practices are ones that have only been found in recent years, whereas scientific practices are ancient.
B) It is difficult to distinguish science from pseudoscience because the boundaries between the two are fuzzy.
C) It is fairly easy to find criteria that distinguish science from pseudoscience.
D) Pseudosciences can be clearly demarcated from sciences.

Question 16

The field of _____ made observations that contributed to the development of the science of chemistry, even though it might now be considered a pseudoscience.

A) astrology
B) mesmerism
C) phrenology
D) alchemy

Question 17

Which statement is TRUE about the predictions in astrological horoscopes?

A) Astrological descriptions and predictions are stated so generally that many people accept them as accurate.
B) Astrological predictions are often surprisingly accurate when compared to the occurrence of coincidental events.
C) Horoscopes are based on updated facts about the position of stars and planets with respect to the Earth.
D) Astrological predictions are able to explain some things that modern astronomy cannot.

Question 18

Astrologers and others who practice pseudosciences do not revise or reject their "theories" when they are not supported by research. This practice shows that pseudosciences:

A) often seek to confirm hypotheses and do not make those hypotheses falsifiable.
B) often use low-quality evidence rather than higher-quality evidence.
C) involve making vague hypotheses and predictions.
D) often use language that is obscure and unlike that used in true science.

Question 19

The example of Libra-the constellation that the ancient Greeks associated with the scales of justice and the traits of being balanced and diplomatic-was used to illustrate which idea in the text?

A) People in former times needed 11 other signs of the zodiac to complete their description of the complete personality.
B) Even ancient peoples associated patterns they found in the stars with critical thinking dispositions they sought to teach.
C) The patterns that people saw in the stars were influenced by the myths and expectations of their culture.
D) What people saw in the stars was arbitrary and unrelated to the thinking of the everyday person.

Question 20

Phrenologists believed relatively small bumps and indentations on the surface of the skull dictate personality traits. Since this assertion is inconsistent with what is known in science, it shows a common feature of pseudosciences-namely, that they:

A) do not make specific, testable hypotheses.
B) do not systematically check out outcomes of predictions.
C) use logical criteria inappropriately.
D) make scientifically implausible claims.

Question 21

The eighteenth-century scientific committee studying mesmerism that was headed by Benjamin Franklin used an early form of which control procedure?

A) Wait-list control group
B) Randomized trials
C) Yoked control group
D) Placebo control

Question 22

Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory is criticized for providing support almost exclusively from case studies of his clients-cases that he may not even have reported accurately. Which criterion for distinguishing pseudoscience is this related to?

A) Making predictions that are not falsifiable
B) Using obscure language or terms
C) Making implausible claims, given what is known in psychology
D) Using low-quality evidence to support its claims

Question 23

The use of a control group that waits for treatment is essentially an effort by a researcher to:

A) control for spontaneous remission or participants improving on their own over time.
B) control the unwanted effects of a drug treatment, such as side effects.
C) prevent research participants from showing a negative reaction to a treatment that is actually ineffective.
D) control for the expectation that a treatment procedure will cause some improvement.

Question 24

In experiments testing Facilitated Communication (FC), when FC practitioners were not aware of the content of the message presented to autistic people, the communication of autistic people was not facilitated. This type of experimental control involved the:

A) presentation of a placebo control.
B) use of a wait-for-treatment control group.
C) facilitators being blinded to the experimental condition.
D) control of extraneous variables in the environment.

Question 25

Scientology, an approach to therapy developed by a science fiction writer, claims that mental problems originated from extraterrestrial spirits left by Xenu, a galactic tyrant. This makes the approach seem pseudoscientific because this account:

A) makes predictions that are vague.
B) is implausible given what we know from psychology and astronomy.
C) reverses the burden of proof and argues from possibility.
D) incorrectly uses general rules of reasoning.

Question 26

The assumption of phrenology that specific abilities are associated with certain underlying brain areas is consistent with which idea from modern research on the brain?

A) Personality has five factors.
B) Function is localized in the brain.
C) Neurons send and receive messages.
D) The mind and the brain are separate entities.

Question 27

Scientologists use terms such as "auditing" for "counseling" and "clear" for a client who has "been cured" of psychological problems. For this reason, Scientology meets which criterion for being classified as a pseudoscience?

A) Using low-quality rather than high-quality evidence to support its claims
B) Using obscure language that lacks connectedness to science
C) Reversing the burden of proof and arguing from possibility
D) Ignoring the rule that theories and hypotheses must be consistent with data

Question 28

To evaluate the efficacy of therapies and clinical practices, researchers in the evidence based practice movement are especially persuaded by:

A) correlational studies.
B) randomized trial experiments.
C) clinical case studies.
D) longitudinal studies.

Question 29

The philosopher Karl Popper criticized Alfred Adler's use of psychoanalytic theory to explain any outcome that might occur, especially explaining away outcomes that were not predicted by the theory. Which criterion for distinguishing pseudoscience is this related to?

A) Making predictions that are not falsifiable
B) Using obscure language or terms
C) Making implausible claims, given what is known in psychology
D) Using low-quality evidence to support its claims

Question 30

A website describes a new treatment of mental disorders developed during the last decade. The treatment involves taking a regimen of vitamins and minerals designed to reduce anxiety. Testimonials from several people who took the supplements claimed that they felt less anxious after taking them for only two weeks. The website also claimed that the treatment was effective for treating depression, schizophrenia, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. All but one of the following statements is a reason to suspect that the treatment might be pseudoscientific. Which one is NOT a reason to suspect it is?

A) It seems implausible that the treatment would be effective for so many different conditions.
B) The treatment seems to be supported by low-quality evidence.
C) Other clinical sciences do not claim that nutritional deficiency is the cause of anxiety.
D) The treatment seems to be a fairly new therapy developed during the last decade.

Question 31

Which research design is considered the "gold standard" in efficacy research?

A) Clinical case study
B) Randomized-trial experiment
C) Clinical correlational study
D) Quasi-experiment with placebo control

Question 32

When an experimenter began to make observations of a psychic's behavior, the psychic's ESP disappeared. A parapsychologist claimed that the experimenter was generating negative energy that interfered with the ESP. Since scientific study requires that a researcher make observations, this creates a problem in that the parapsychologist is:

A) making an argument from possibility.
B) relying upon authority and low-quality evidence.
C) making the ESP hypothesis untestable.
D) making the ESP hypothesis implausible.

Question 33

Richard Feynman described a group of scientifically uneducated native islanders who wanted to recreate the experience of cargo planes landing on their island during World War II. They built an imitation of a runway and huts in which a man wore wooden pieces on his head to imitate radio headphones. This example of a "cargo cult science" was used to illustrate how:

A) practitioners of pseudoscience go through the motions of doing science, but actually are disconnected from the substance of science.
B) scientifically uneducated people can be fooled into superstitious rituals that do not work to produce real effects.
C) real science can advance the technology of scientifically uneducated people.
D) people from scientifically sophisticated developed countries differ from the scientifically educated people of developing countries.

Question 34

The self-help program The Secret assumes that positive thoughts can directly affect physical events in the universe to produce success and other positive outcomes. From a scientific perspective, the _____ is the most important objection to the ideas found in The Secret.

A) emphasis on positive thinking
B) endorsement of the program by Oprah Winfrey
C) implausibility of the idea of the "law of attraction"
D) fact that The Secret has received so much attention

Question 35

A placebo is a commonly used control in drug studies. It is also important to use as a control in clinical research on psychotherapies because:

A) people can show spontaneous remission in psychotherapy studies just as they can in drug studies.
B) researchers can examine unwanted side effects of psychotherapies just as they examine such side effects in drug studies.
C) researchers can prevent study participants from showing a negative reaction to a treatment that is actually ineffective.
D) it controls for the expectation that a psychotherapy procedure will produce improvement just as with receiving a drug.

Question 36

The use of a placebo control is essentially an effort by a researcher to:

A) control for spontaneous remission.
B) control the unwanted effects of a drug treatment, such as side effects.
C) prevent research participants from showing a negative reaction to a treatment that is actually ineffective.
D) control for the expectation that a treatment procedure will cause some improvement.

Question 37

Which of the following has been claimed to be an effective treatment for autism but is actually a pseudoscientific practice?

A) Facilitated Communication
B) Systematic desensitization
C) Thought Field Therapy
D) Freudian psychoanalysis

Question 38

A number of misconceptions have circulated about autism and its treatment. Which statement is NOT a misconception about autism?

A) The communication problems of autistic people are the result of the inability to control their motor movements.
B) Facilitated Communication has been shown to be an effective treatment for childhood autism.
C) The large increase in the diagnosis of cases of autism has been due to the chemicals present in vaccines for childhood diseases.
D) Children with autism often have learning and communication deficits, but special training can reduce these deficiencies.

Question 39

Meta-analysis is a technique that allows researchers to find out how effective a treatment is through a quantitative comparison of different treatments. It does this by comparing their:

A) effect sizes.
B) correlations
C) sample sizes.
D) estimated magnitudes.

Question 40

Which of the following is NOT likely to be considered a pseudoscientific therapeutic procedure?

A) Thought Field Therapy
B) Systematic desensitization
C) Facilitated Communication
D) Freudian psychoanalysis

Question 41

Which of the following is a problem or limitation that Steve Salerno noticed about self-help treatments when he worked for a publisher of self-help materials?

A) Most, but not all of the treatments, have been adequately tested in good studies.
B) Some of the treatments have been found to be ineffective in scientific studies.
C) The same people tend to repeatedly buy new self-help books.
D) The treatments may help a person at first, but then lose their effectiveness.

Question 42

Which of the following is likely to be endorsed for the treatment of depression by those who advocate that clinicians should use evidence-based practices?

A) Freudian psychoanalysis
B) Beck's cognitive behavior therapy
C) Thought Field Therapy
D) Modern hypnotherapy

Question 43

Explain how those who practice pseudoscience do not follow the practices of good science. Specifically, comment on how Table 5.1, which deals with distinguishing pseudoscience from science, is related to the proper conduct of science.

Question 44

Presently, the manufacturers of nutritional supplements are not required to obtain approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to verify the claims of the effectiveness of the health products they sell. Suppose a company wants to market a new herbal supplement which it claims improves memory. A scientifically informed citizen would hope that someday the FDA would insist that before it approves such a product, research on the effectiveness of the supplement would:

A) be quasi-experimental.
B) compare it to people already taking a supplement.
C) compare it to a placebo treatment.
D) be conducted on young people who are most likely to use it.

Question 45

Suppose one of your friends has a mental health issue and may need to undergo psychotherapy. Pretend you are advising your friend generally about what to look for in a good psychotherapy and how to avoid bad and pseudoscientific therapies. State what you would tell your friend, along with the reasons for your suggestions.

Question 46

Which of the following statements is TRUE about magnet therapy?

A) Magnet therapy has been clearly demonstrated to reduce acute pain in numerous studies.
B) Magnet therapy has been demonstrated to reduce pain and effectively treat other problems.
C) Magnet therapy works because it influences the magnetic field surrounding the body.
D) No clear benefits have been revealed in studies that compare magnets with sham magnets.

Question 47

The self-help program The Secret assumes that positive thoughts can directly affect physical events in the universe to produce success and other positive outcomes. When a person who is not cured after using its approach, the program attributes the failure to the idea that "God had other plans" for the person. From a scientific perspective, the program's explanation for therapeutic failure shows that it is using:

A) standards of evidence and quality reasoning to decide about program efficacy.
B) supernatural entities that provide strong support that the treatment is effective.
C) predictions about the program that are vague, untestable, and not falsifiable.
D) negative testimonials to show that the program is not a pseudoscience.