Deck 4: Gender Development

Question 1

A mental structure for organizing networks of information about gender is called a gender ______.

A) category
B) script
C) module
D) schema

Answer 1

schema

Question 2

Which of the following would you predict to be TRUE of someone who is gender aschematic?

A) They will be able to identify faces as masculine or feminine more quickly than the average person.
B) Attempts to prime gender stereotypes will have smaller effects upon their judgments and behavior.
C) They will be more likely to experience gender dysphoria.
D) Witnessing gender atypical behavior will be especially surprising to them.

Answer 2

Attempts to prime gender stereotypes will have smaller effects upon their judgments and behavior.

Question 3

In which of the following ways do children raised by same-sex parents differ from children with parents of both sexes?

A) They tend to have reduced psychological adjustment or well-being.
B) They are more artistic and score higher on openness to experience.
C) They are more likely to be transgender.
D) They endorse fewer gender stereotypes.

Answer 3

They endorse fewer gender stereotypes.

Question 4

One study in the 1970s (and replicated in the 1990s) asked parents to rate their newborn infants on a series of adjectives. Researchers found that parents ______.

A) used a larger number of adjectives when describing boys than girls
B) rated boys as stronger and more coordinated than girls
C) accurately accounted for gender differences in infants' physical traits
D) rely on bottom up perceptions rather than top down stereotypes

Question 5

Which of the following is NOT true of the representation of girls and women in children's media?

A) In the 1990s, roughly a third of lead characters in children's books were female.
B) Gender bias in favor of male characters is more pronounced in non-human animal characters.
C) Gender bias in favor of male characters is unique to Western cultures.
D) Coloring books contain more male than female lead characters.

Question 6

Bigler and Liben (2007) propose ______, a variant of gender schema theory that emphasizes how groups influence the formation of children's gender stereotypes and prejudices.

A) comparative intergroup theory
B) developmental relations theory
C) intergroup stereotypes theory
D) developmental intergroup theory

Question 7

Cognitive theories differ from social learning theories in that cognitive theories focus more on ______.

A) the external forces that influence children's identities and behaviors
B) individual level attitudes than group level stereotypes
C) top-down processes rather than bottom-up processes
D) the internal, mental changes children undergo as they understand their world

Question 8

A study examining the influence of parents and peers upon gender development would most likely come from the ______ perspective.

A) cognitive
B) comparative
C) neurological
D) social learning

Question 9

According to Sandra Bem (1983) what is the difference between someone who is gender schematic versus someone who is gender aschematic?

A) Someone who is gender schematic is more likely to use gender as a way of understanding and organizing the world.
B) People who are gender aschematic do not strongly identify with any gender.
C) Being gender aschematic entails holding strong, gendered attitudes that are atypical and inconsistent with gender norms.
D) A person who relies heavily on gender schematic processing thinks about gender in a more logical and deductive fashion.

Question 10

According to cognitive developmental theory, what is the causal relationship between gender identity and gender typical behaviors?

A) Rewards for gender typical behavior cause children to develop gender identity.
B) The emergence of gender identity causes children to perform gender typical behavior.
C) The relationship between gender identity and gender typical behavior is explained by a third variable--the presence or absence of androgens.
D) Gender identity only indirectly produces gender typical behavior by creating expectations in parents.

Question 11

Little Jonny's parents always smile at him when they see him rough housing with his friends. Which element of social learning theory is this an example of?

A) reinforcement
B) punishment
C) imitation
D) observation

Question 12

According to Quinn and colleagues (2002), what is the first social category infants recognize?

A) sexual orientation
B) sex
C) family
D) race

Question 13

Which of the following would be an example of a parent-child interaction?

A) parents buying Barbies and pink toys for their daughters because of gendered expectations
B) boys exhibiting rougher play following encouragement from their father
C) boys receiving harsher discipline because they do not respond to gentle punishment
D) girls learning to internalize failure based on feedback from their parents

Question 14

Researchers using preferential looking techniques have discovered what regarding toy preferences in young infants?

A) Infants as young as 3-8 months prefer looking at gender typical toys.
B) Infants show no preference for gender typical toys.
C) Infants fixate longer on gender atypical toys.
D) Infants are quicker to identify an object as a gender atypical than as gender typical.

Question 15

Which of the following best describes what Walter Mischel (1966) meant by the term sex-typing?

A) the process by which individuals acquire gendered behavior patterns through social reward and punishment
B) the process by which hormones cause sexual differentiation during early childhood
C) the different rates of cognitive development among boys and girls that produce gender stereotypes
D) the rigid categorization of infants into binary sex categories

Question 16

Based on research studying the influence of parents in gender socialization, which of the following findings would you NOT expect to find?

A) Children raised by same-sex parents are less likely to endorse certain gender stereotypes.
B) Mothers estimate that their sons can crawl down steeper slopes than their daughters.
C) Parents assign girls more household chores than boys.
D) Parents are less flexible in allowing girls to pursue behavior associated with the other sex.

Question 17

Major theories of gender development fall into two broad categories: ______ and ______.

A) social learning; cognitive
B) social learning; neurological
C) neurological; cognitive
D) comparative; social learning

Question 18

Children's peer and friendship circles tend to ______.

A) be segregated by sex for only about a quarter of the time
B) encourage gender typical behaviors when sex-segregated
C) be segregated by sex due to the preferences of adults and teachers
D) increase productivity in school when sex-segregated

Question 19

According to cognitive developmental theory, what is the sequence in which children's understanding of gender develops?

A) Gender Identity $\rightarrow$ Gender Stability $\rightarrow$ Gender Constancy
B) Gender Identity $\rightarrow$ Gender Constancy $\rightarrow$ Gender Stability
C) Gender Constancy $\rightarrow$ Gender Stability $\rightarrow$ Gender Identity
D) Gender Stability $\rightarrow$ Gender Constancy $\rightarrow$ Gender Identity

Question 20

Which of the following describes how having siblings influences gender development?

A) Children without siblings exhibit the most gender typical behavior.
B) Children with or without siblings exhibit the same degree of gender typical behavior.
C) Children with older siblings of the opposite gender display the most gender typical behavior.
D) Children with older siblings of the same gender display the most gender typical behavior.

Question 21

Jean Twenge found what trend in gendered self-views across the years 1974-1994?

A) Men's self-views became more agentic.
B) Men's self-views became more communal.
C) Women's self-views became more agentic.
D) Women's self-views became more communal.

Question 22

According to the gender self-socialization model, what type of person will be most likely to develop gendered self-views?

A) Someone who identifies strongly with their sex and endorses gender stereotypes.
B) Someone who rejects gender stereotypes but identifies strongly with their sex.
C) Someone who does not identify strongly with their sex but endorses gender stereotypes.
D) Someone who rejects gender stereotypes and does not identify strongly with their sex.

Question 23

In Western cultures, what are some of the outcomes of undergoing early puberty for boys?

A) increased popularity and self-esteem
B) negative body image, depression, and engagement in risky behaviors
C) increased academic success and participation in extracurricular activities
D) a lack of social resources and smaller circles of friends

Question 24

Research shows that parents and young adults emphasize different criteria for determining when adolescents become adults. For example, parents might place more emphasis on ______ whereas young adults are more likely to emphasize ______.

A) avoiding juvenile misbehavior; getting married
B) finishing college; having children
C) biological changes; refraining from binge drinking
D) having children; biological changes

Question 25

Olson and colleagues' (2015) study of transgender children between the ages of 5 and 12 discovered what about pre-pubertal transgender identity?

A) Transgender girls reported more masculine toy preferences than cisgender girls.
B) Transgender and cisgender children look identical on measures for play preferences.
C) Transgender boys explicitly report masculine play preferences but implicitly prefer feminine play activities.
D) Transgender identities are more authentic in transgender girls than in transgender boys.

Question 26

Social learning theories may be criticized for characterizing children as ______ while cognitive theories receive criticism for de-emphasizing the role of ______.

A) more intelligent learners than they really are; biological factors
B) prejudiced and dependent on stereotypes; social roles
C) passive recipients of their environment; culture
D) cognitive misers; education

Question 27

Sex differences in gendered self-views are larger in cultures that have more gender equality. Which of the following is consistent with this finding?

A) Men are less communal than women but this difference is smallest in European countries.
B) Women are more aggressive than men in countries low on gender equality but are less aggressive than men in countries high on gender equality.
C) Men score higher on assertiveness than women, but only in countries low on gender equality.
D) Women score higher than men on warmth and this difference is largest in the West.

Question 28

Compared to the West, collectivist cultures are more likely to interpret strict parenting as ______.

A) condescending
B) warm and caring
C) effective in boys but not girls
D) harsh and cruel

Question 29

Which of the following is NOT true of risks faced by gender nonconforming children?

A) Gender nonconforming children who lack the support of their parents are at greater risk of drug and substance abuse.
B) Gender nonconforming youth are more likely to be the targets of harassment and abuse from peers.
C) Gender nonconforming boys are at especially high rates of rejection and bullying.
D) Gender nonconforming girls suffer greater increases in risks of depression than gender nonconforming boys.

Question 30

McHale and colleagues (2005) study of Mexican American families found what regarding parental double standards in affording freedoms to sons and daughters?

A) Parents gave sons more privileges and freedoms but also more chores.
B) Parents afforded sons more freedom regardless of their views on gender roles.
C) Traditional parents allowed adolescent daughters fewer privileges.
D) The double standard disappeared after researchers controlled for socioeconomic status.

Question 31

Conflicts between daughters and sons and their parents tend to be highest ______.

A) in emerging adulthood
B) in early adolescence
C) immediately prior to the onset of puberty
D) when they move from their parent's house

Question 32

Heilman and Okimoto (2007) discovered that perceivers rate agentic women leaders less favorably than they rate agent take male leaders, but this difference disappears when ______.

A) the male and female leaders have equivalent qualifications
B) perceivers learn that the agentic female leader has children
C) examining cultures high in gender equality
D) perceivers are primed with images of female leaders

Question 33

Sex differences in gendered self-views are larger in cultures that have more gender equality. How do Guimond and colleagues (2007) explain this counter-intuitive finding?

A) Women make more cross-sex self-comparisons in cultures high in gender equality.
B) Women and men are freer to express their true values and attitudes in cultures high in gender equality.
C) Cultures low in gender equality also tend to be collectivistic.
D) Differences in the gene pool of European and non-European samples.

Question 34

Which of the following is NOT true of dating and cross-sex relationships in adolescence?

A) Mixed sex friendships increase from 10% in sixth grade to 22% in ninth grade.
B) Adolescent boys report more same-sex relationships than adolescent girls.
C) The percentage of adolescents who report experiencing a romantic relationship in the past 18 months is around 70% at age 18.
D) Around 3.5% of adolescent girls report a same-sex relationship in the past 18 months.

Question 35

Researchers manipulating the salience of sex as a grouping dimension in children's classrooms have found that increasing the salience of sex leads to all the following EXCEPT ______.

A) decreased playtime with other sex peers
B) increased in-group bias
C) decreased enjoyment of recreational activity
D) increased gender stereotyping

Question 36

In Western cultures, what are some of the outcomes of undergoing early puberty for girls?

A) increased popularity and self-esteem
B) negative body image, depression, and engagement in risky behaviors
C) increased academic success and participation in extracurricular activities
D) a lack of social resources and smaller circles of friends

Question 37

In the West, what are the long-term effects of parental tendencies to support or undermine adolescents' expressions of autonomy?

A) Respecting adolescents' opinions and positions predicts stronger relationship skills in adulthood.
B) Supporting adolescents' autonomy predicts greater academic and career success.
C) Strict, authoritative parenting predicts greater respect and care for others later in life.
D) Strict parental control predicts increased risks of depression and anxiety disorders.

Question 38

Research has demonstrated what about the capacities of young, pre-pubertal children to develop stable transgender identities?

A) Most children do not have an understanding of gender that is nuanced enough to identify a lack of fit between their felt and assigned gender category.
B) Even at a young age, children may develop a clear and consistent sense of themselves as belonging to a gender group that differs from their assigned sex.
C) While young children may identify that their assigned gender does not fit their experiences, they lack the cognitive resources to maintain a stable transgender identity.
D) Children's gender identity is determined entirely by feedback from their parents and authority figures.

Question 39

In what ways do young women and young men use social networking sites differently?

A) Women are more likely to post photos of large groups of female friends whereas men are more likely to post photos of pairs of friends.
B) Men are more likely to use social networks to stay in touch with old and distant friends.
C) Women use more exaggerated emotional tones when communicating online.
D) Men are more likely to discuss society and abstract problems.

Question 40

Which of the following is NOT consistent with Milton Diamond's (2006) biased-interaction theory?

A) Biological factors predispose individuals to display temperaments that are classified as masculine or feminine.
B) Gender identity emerges from the comparison of self to others.
C) Children begin assessing their similarity to other "boys" and "girls" primarily in puberty.
D) "Social factors" are defined as the entire body of gender relevant information that children use as bases of self-other comparisons.

Question 41

In Western cultures, early puberty is related to more negative outcomes among girls than it is among boys.

Question 42

Degendering theory proposes that ______.

A) gender is most central to the self in adulthood
B) as people grow older gender becomes a less central aspect of the self
C) people are less likely to identify with any gender as gender equality increases
D) sex differences become smaller as gender equality increases

Question 43

______ refers to a culturally idealized and exaggerated vision of manhood that consists of competition, aggression, success, and toughness.

A) precarious manhood
B) competitive masculinity
C) hegemonic masculinity
D) Prodigious manhood

Question 44

Which of the following outcomes would NOT be consistent with the precarious manhood hypothesis?

A) Men are more likely than women to expect losing their job will affect their reputation.
B) Men engage in more public displays of risky behavior.
C) Men who experience job loss as emasculating experience increased anxiety.
D) When women feel they are seen as "less of a woman," they report greater depression.

Question 45

A cisgender girl understands that she will grow up to be a "mommy" rather than a "daddy," before she understands that a man wearing a dress does not turn him into a woman.

Question 46

Researchers examining the double standard of aging have found all of the following EXCEPT ______.

A) women are perceived to be "old" at a younger age
B) evaluations of women's competence decline more with age
C) evaluations of women's likeability decrease more sharply with age
D) men express more concerns about physical health as they grow older

Question 47

Parents tend to accurately predict sex differences among their infant children.

Question 48

Parents are generally less flexible in allowing boys than girls to pursue cross gender behavior.

Question 49

Which of the following is an advantage adults report during gender development later in life?

A) overall decreases in sex differences on personality traits
B) internalization and acceptance of gender roles
C) increased independence from social relationships
D) relief from gendered expectations and responsibilities

Question 50

People who are gender aschematic are especially likely to use gendered concepts as a way of understanding and organizing the world.

Question 51

Adolescents who identify as lesbian or gay at age 15 are much more likely than their heterosexual peers to display cross-gender play preferences between the ages of 2 and 5.

Question 52

Transgender identity in pre-puberty children is problematic because children tend to be either confused or simply pretending to be another gender.

Question 53

Which of the following expectations of women has been shown to produce feelings of shame and low self-esteem?

A) that they should embrace communal and nurturing roles
B) that they should exert time and effort into beautifying their appearance
C) that they are less skilled in math
D) that they are less athletic and physically capable

Question 54

One advantage that socialization processes afford women over men is ______.

A) women are mentally sharper in old age
B) men lose power and influence more quickly as they grow older
C) women are more self-reliant in old age
D) women become more likeable as they grow older relative to men

Question 55

According to the precarious manhood hypothesis there is a cross-cultural tendency to understand manhood as ______ and womanhood as ______.

A) dominant; submissive
B) easy to lose; stable
C) socially desirable; undesirable
D) earned through agentic achievements; earned through communal achievements

Question 56

Children spend most of their playtime with gender-typical toys.

Question 57

Childhood friends are typically the first source of socialization teaching gender norms to children.

Question 58

Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies find what evidence relevant to degendering theory?

A) Western countries have higher rates of people who identify as "agender."
B) Older women are less likely to describe themselves as communal.
C) Sex differences increase in countries with greater gender equality.
D) Across all age groups, women rate themselves higher in communal traits and men rate themselves higher in agentic traits.

Question 59

The idea behind the double standard of aging is that ______.

A) women's social value declines with age but men's increases
B) older women are viewed as more warm but older men are viewed as more agentic
C) men fear growing older but women do not
D) women are viewed as more competent as they grow older but men are less competent

Question 60

Cognitive theories of gender development emphasize the influence of behavioral models and reinforcement from peers and authority figures.

Question 61

Being raised by same-sex parents has what (if any) effects upon the development of gender identity, sexual orientation, and beliefs about gender stereotypes?

Question 62

Across television programs and advertisements, how do portrayals of male and female characters tend to differ from one another?

Question 63

Briefly describe the difference in how social learning theories and cognitive theories explain how children acquire gendered beliefs and preferences?

Question 64

Elderly men tend to viewed as more idle and weak compared to elderly women, who are viewed as relatively more resourceful and strong.

Question 65

Sex differences in toy preferences emerge consistently, early, and across culture. What are the two explanations for these differences described in the text? Describe evidence for each of these explanations and detail at least one specific study in your explanation.

Question 66

Describe what is meant by the "double standard of aging." Discuss the evidence for and/or against it. Do men and women each face unique double standards of aging? If so, why?

Question 67

What is the relationship between sex differences in gendered self-views and the gender equality of a given culture? Provide a concrete example of what is meant by this relationship. How do Guimond and colleagues (2007) propose we interpret this relationship?

Question 68

Describe how strict, authoritative parenting is perceived in both individualistic and collectivistic cultures.

Question 69

Across culture, manhood is typically conceptualized as a stable social status that emerges inevitably from biological changes.

Question 70

Overall, perceivers tend to rate agentic female leaders less favorably than they rate agentic male leaders, but this difference goes away if perceivers learn that the female leader has children.

Question 71

What did Kristina Olson and colleagues (2015) find when they compared transgender children with cisgender children, and what do these findings say about the ability of pre-pubertal children to establish stable, transgender identities?

Question 72

Describe the difference between someone who relies on gender schematic processing versus someone who is gender aschematic?

Question 73

Barb is investigating how threats to manhood and womanhood affect men and women respectively. She conducts an experiment where at a certain point male participates receive feedback that they are not "real men." Similarly, female participants received feedback that they are not "real women." She then measures participants' anxiety levels. Predict what effect this feedback will have for the male and female participants according to the precarious manhood hypothesis. Explain why the precarious manhood hypothesis leads to your prediction.

Question 74

Among more traditional families, parents tend to allow adolescent daughters fewer freedoms and assign them more chores compared to sons.

Question 75

In Western cultures, when parents negotiate conflicts by supporting adolescents' autonomy they display stronger relationship skills as they enter adulthood.