Deck 13: Development of the Self and Social Cognition

Question 1

Which of the following best summarizes the research findings regarding preschoolers' awareness of the psychological characteristics of others?

A)They have no awareness of the psychological characteristics of others.
B)They are aware of the psychological characteristics of others even if they do not necessarily demonstrate that knowledge in all contexts.
C)They rely heavily on psychological characteristics as a basis for making playmate choices.
D)They understand that situational factors influence the psychological characteristics that a person displays.

Answer 1

They are aware of the psychological characteristics of others even if they do not necessarily demonstrate that knowledge in all contexts.

Question 2

During which phase of achievement do children expect disapproval following failures?

A)use-of-standards
B)approval-seeking
C)self-seeking
D)use-of-approval

Answer 2

approval-seeking

Question 3

You are having dinner with your friend.When you arrive, his daughter Brianne runs up and tells you proudly that she is a "big girl." According to most developmentalists, what accounts for Brianne's self-categorical statement?

A)She has developed an awareness of her categorical self.
B)She has developed an awareness of her extended self.
C)She has developed the ability to attend to the word big when others are talking about their attributes.
D)She has developed the ability to attend to the spatial contrasts of self that differ from those of others.

Answer 3

She has developed an awareness of her categorical self.

Question 4

Griffin just looked in the mirror and saw a spot on the nose of his image.If Griffin is 2 years old, how will he react?

A)He will ignore the image.
B)He will rub at the spot on his nose.
C)He will stare at the image, but ignore the spot.
D)He will rub at the spot on the mirror.

Question 5

Recent research has identified bullying as a significant contributor to self-esteem.How high is student victimization thought to be?

A)2-12 percent
B)5-20 percent
C)10-33 percent
D)50 percent or higher

Question 6

Which of the following statements regarding Canadian research on self-esteem is accurate?

A)Self-esteem programs in schools are largely unsuccessful.
B)Global self-worth develops independently of aerobic fitness and body mass index in children.
C)Boys are less concerned about body image than girls are.
D)School programs aimed at improving body image in preadolescents made an overall improvement in feelings of self-esteem.

Question 7

Anita just looked in the mirror and saw a smudge of dirt on her cheek.If Anita is 8 months of age, what is her most likely reaction?

A)She will rub at the smudge on her cheek.
B)She will rub at her cheek on the mirror.
C)She will wave at the mirror.
D)She will turn away from the mirror.

Question 8

Secure attachment is related to self-awareness, as shown by which of the following accurately reported findings from research?

A)Children, 2- and 3-years old, with both resistant and avoidant attachments, developed complex awareness of themselves before their attached counterparts, but fell behind their secure age-mates on awareness of their mothers.
B)Insecurely attached children, 2- and 3-years old, failed to develop even simple awareness of themselves or their mothers, and were often unable to answer basic questions, such as their names or genders.
C)Children, 2- and 3-years old, with avoidant attachments refused to engage with either their own or their mother's image in the rouge task.
D)Securely attached children, 2- and 3-years old, had a more complex awareness of themselves and their mothers than infants with insecure attachments.

Question 9

Which of the following statements about cross-cultural variance in the development of self-concept is accurate?

A)Children in many industrialized countries of Europe saw individuals who were preoccupied with personal concerns as maladjusted.
B)Haitian children in south Florida had statistically lower scores on self-concept than white children.
C)First Nations children in Canada develop self-concepts as part of an intergenerational knowledge transfer within their culture.
D)The self-concept in Chinese children was found to be socially oriented across all domains.

Question 10

Who proposed a hierarchical model of childhood self-esteem?

A)Susan Harter
B)James Marcia
C)Erik Erikson
D)Rebecca Eder

Question 11

Which of the following teacher comments would be most likely to encourage a child to exert more effort on a task rather than to give up?

A)"You're not very good at this, are you?"
B)"I bet you just need to give more time to these assignments."
C)"Luck sure was on your side this time."
D)"You seem to be having trouble with these assignments; let me help you."

Question 12

What did Cheng and Kwan (2008) find when they reported differences between collectivist and individualistic types of attachment and self-worth?

A)Collectivists showed stronger relationships between attachment anxiety and physical appearance.
B)Collectivists showed stronger relationships between attachment anxiety and family support.
C)Individualists showed stronger relationships between attachment anxiety and physical appearance.
D)Individualists showed stronger relationships between attachment anxiety and family support.

Question 13

According to most developmentalists, what aspect of an individual's achievement motivation is determined by the stability dimension?

A)an individual's perception of the overall effort required
B)an individual's expectations for success or failure
C)an individual's evaluation of the outcome
D)an individual's perceived probability of success

Question 14

Suppose you overheard the following piece of gossip: "Jude never gets a second date with anyone because he is totally clueless about others' thoughts, needs, or wants." Based on this description, what do others see Jude as being deficient in?

A)person perception
B)his extended self
C)his self-esteem
D)personal agency

Question 15

Naadir feels proud that he can help to fix things around the house and tutor his brother in math.What is Naadir's pride in his skills called?

A)identity
B)self-control
C)self-concept
D)self-esteem

Question 16

Which of the following best summarizes the research findings regarding social competency?

A)It is not dependent on relational context.
B)It begins in young adulthood.
C)It contributes to global self-esteem.
D)It begins in early infancy.

Question 17

Which of the following adult comments would most likely result in children persisting at a task even though they are making errors?

A)"Your performance will be compared to others."
B)"You will make errors and the goal is to improve."
C)"Your goal is to demonstrate your ability."
D)"Your goal is to demonstrate your weaknesses."

Question 18

Maite is concerned with how he compares to others in his peer group.For example, he is always trying to kick a ball farther than his friends, and he constantly wonders if he is doing as well in school as his classmates.Based on this information, what grade level of schooling is Maite in?

A)kindergarten
B)early elementary
C)middle elementary
D)late elementary

Question 19

According to the research of Berndt and Perry, when adolescents reach stage 3 or 4 of Selman's stages of social perspective taking, their notions of friendship change.At this point, what do adolescents believe is an important aspect of friendship?

A)the exchange of intimate thoughts and feelings
B)reciprocation of good deeds
C)psychological similarity between friends
D)an interest in common activities

Question 20

In contrast to children who are raised in individualistic societies, children raised in collectivist societies tend to have self-concepts centred on which of the following characteristics?

A)relationships with others
B)personal preferences
C)personal attributes
D)self-achievements

Question 21

Eder studied children's self-concepts by asking them to choose between two descriptive statements.Do her findings support those obtained using the method of self-description?

A)Yes, self-description provides a good estimate of self-concept for children of all ages.
B)No, self-description overestimates the understanding that younger children have of their own characteristics.
C)No, self-description underestimates the understanding that younger children have of their own characteristics.
D)They do partially; self-description provides a good estimate of self-concept only in elementary school-aged children.

Question 22

Which of the following would a 4- to 5-year old be most likely to say about his or her peers?

A)"Ida is shy."
B)"Jason runs faster than Malik."
C)"Anik is smarter than Sara."
D)"Tareq has brown hair."

Question 23

In comparison with older children's friendships, what characterizes those of younger children?

A)They are based on common activities.
B)They have greater stability and last longer.
C)They are built on mutual reciprocity.
D)They are based on emotional support.

Question 24

Which of the following best describes the entity view of ability?

A)the belief that one's ability can be improved through increased effort and practice
B)the tendency to persist at challenging tasks after previously failing at those tasks
C)the tendency to make external-unstable attributions for successes and failures
D)the belief that ability is not influenced much by effort or practice

Question 25

According to Weiner, which of the following patterns of causal attribution for successes and failures characterizes high achievers?

A)They attribute successes to stable, internal factors, and failures to unstable, external factors.
B)They attribute successes to stable, external factors, and failures to stable, internal factors.
C)They attribute successes to unstable, internal factors, and failures to stable, external factors.
D)They attribute successes to unstable, external factors, and failures to unstable, internal factors.

Question 26

Suppose that you are conducting naturalistic research on the content of children's self-descriptions.You have gathered data from a group of children in kindergarten who were asked to describe themselves in a few short sentences at a school recital.Based upon current research, which of the following statements would be typical of your participants?

A)"I'm the biggest girl in my class."
B)"I like fun people."
C)"I have a backpack and a puppy."
D)"Mark and April and Liam and Nathan are my best friends."

Question 27

According to research findings, what data support the link between secure attachments in infancy and later achievement motivation?

A)The children are more curious.
B)The children are more intellectually competent.
C)The children are more reserved.
D)The children are better at future planning.

Question 28

Suppose you overhear a group of students discussing the results of their Psychology midterm.Based on current research findings, which of the following statements would be made by the student with an external achievement attribution?

A)"I can't understand her during the lecture because she talks too fast."
B)"I was tired because I was called in to work the graveyard shift the night before."
C)"The test was too hard and was unfair."
D)"I am never going to learn this material; I am no good at Psychology."

Question 29

Reem understands that even when she and her friend have the same information, they may have different points of view; however, Reem is not able to simultaneously consider her and her friend's perspectives.What aspect of role taking is exemplified by Reem's abilities?

A)self-involved
B)self-reflective
C)social informational
D)mutual

Question 30

According to Weiner, which of the following patterns of causal attribution for successes and failures characterizes low achievers?

A)They attribute successes to stable, internal factors, and failures to unstable, internal factors.
B)They attribute successes to stable, external factors, and failures to stable, internal factors.
C)They attribute successes to unstable, internal factors, and failures to stable, external factors.
D)They attribute successes to unstable, external factors, and failures to stable, internal factors.

Question 31

Coral scored 100 percent on her statistics midterm.If Coral makes an internal-stable attribution for her success, what is she most likely to say?

A)"It was just good luck that most of the exam was on the material I had time to study."
B)"I was calm and relaxed the day of the exam because I was able to get a good night's sleep the night before."
C)"I have always been good at statistics; I guess I just have a natural ability in that area."
D)"The professor makes the whole course so easy to understand that it is virtually impossible to do poorly in the class."

Question 32

Children who show mirror self-recognition are more likely to be raised in cultures that emphasize which characteristic?

A)physical appearance
B)maternal interdependence
C)individual autonomy
D)emotional suppressions

Question 33

How do levels of self-esteem differ between children raised in collectivist societies and children raised in individualistic societies?

A)They have lower self-esteem than their individualistic counterparts.
B)They have higher self-esteem than their individualistic counterparts.
C)They show levels of self-esteem that do not differ from their individualistic counterparts.
D)They show more variation in their self-esteem than their individualistic counterparts.

Question 34

How do Crocker and Wolfe (2001) define a self-worth contingency?

A)a domain or category of outcomes on which individuals stake their self-esteem
B)a domain or category based entirely on the trait of self-esteem
C)a domain or category of personal assessment that does not influence self-esteem until adolescence
D)a domain or category independent of perceived successes or failures

Question 35

Suppose you want to teach a child with a "helpless" orientation to respond more constructively to his or her failures.If you base your technique on the findings of Dweck's research, which of the following should you employ?

A)Present easy problems to provide multiple successes for the child.
B)Present a moderately difficult set of questions and provide encouragement for both successes and failures.
C)Remove a token for failures but provide encouragement for a success.
D)Give the child tokens as rewards for each success.

Question 36

What effect do intervention programs targeting bullying have?

A)They have had no discernable effects on self-esteem.
B)They promote strong social and emotional skill development.
C)They are associated with decreased academic performance.
D)They are more effective when they occur outside of the school environment, away from potential threats and bullies.

Question 37

According to Barenboim's research findings, what characterizes the descriptions of others that are used by the majority of 12- to 16-year-olds?

A)behavioural comparisons
B)psychological constructs
C)psychological comparisons
D)behavioural constructs

Question 38

Which of the following is an outcome associated with a curriculum based on social-emotional strategies taught to children being bullied in British Columbia (Hymel et al., 2017)?

A)positive relationship-building between bullies and victims, resulting in unexpected friendships
B)an initial backlash, which involved a higher incidence of bullying following victim reports
C)a negative response from parents who prefer that school curriculum focus on academic rather than nonacademic competencies
D)an increased likelihood in the identification and reporting of bullying incidents

Question 39

Sachi's parents always tell her that she has "worked hard" when she succeeds, but that she "lacks ability" when she fails.What achievement orientation correlates with this pattern of parental feedback?

A)learned helplessness
B)mastery
C)relational helplessness
D)relational mastery

Question 40

Suppose that you are conducting naturalistic research on the content of children's self-descriptions.You have gathered data from a group of children in kindergarten who were asked to describe themselves in a few short sentences at a school recital.Based upon current research, which of the following attributes would be mentioned most often?

A)their possessions
B)their emotional state
C)their likes and dislikes
D)their friends' names

Question 41

Which of the following parental behaviours are most strongly associated with high levels of self-esteem in their children?

A)Parents are warm and supportive.
B)Parents are autocratic.
C)Parents are loving and permissive.
D)Parents are directive and controlling.

Question 42

Unlike many of her classmates, Zoe is excited to take her compulsory statistics course.She views it as an opportunity to display her competency in mathematics and logical reasoning.Given this scenario, which type of achievement orientation does Zoe have?

A)learned helplessness
B)mastery
C)learned strategic
D)relational

Question 43

Which of the following is most likely to be facilitated by the emergence of mature role-taking skills in a child?

A)personal agency
B)attribution identity
C)multiple social contacts
D)meaningful friendships

Question 44

In contrast to children who are raised in individualistic North American societies, how do children raised in Chinese collectivist societies behave?

A)They are more autonomous/individualistic in the area of learning and achievement.
B)They are more autonomous/individualistic in the area of relationships and family.
C)They emphasize interdependence and relatedness across all domains.
D)They emphasize self-achievements over self-effacement.

Question 45

Felix received a D on his most recent term paper, and he doesn't think his grade is fair.Although his paper was not as good as most of the other students' papers in the class, he feels he deserves a better grade because he worked hard.Based on this description, Felix's emphasis on his perceived effort reflects which view of ability?

A)entity
B)approval-seeking
C)incremental
D)mastery

Question 46

According to Dweck, which of the following would a child with a mastery orientation offer as a reason for failure on a test?

A)The test was challenging.
B)I am just not good at that subject.
C)The test was unfair.
D)I was unlucky.

Question 47

According to Selman's stages of social perspective taking, when a child can assume the perspective of a disinterested third party and anticipate how each participant will react, which stage of role taking has the child reached?

A)mutual
B)social informational
C)self-reflective
D)societal

Question 48

Which of the following is a stable external cause for an achievement outcome?

A)effort
B)ability
C)task difficulty
D)luck

Question 49

According to Selman, which aspect of cognitive development underlies a mature understanding of social behaviours and friendship?

A)concrete operations
B)formal operations
C)egocentrism
D)perspective taking

Question 50

Which of the following is a stable internal cause for an achievement outcome?

A)effort
B)ability
C)task difficulty
D)luck

Question 51

Based on Stipek's findings, what is the earliest year of age you would expect to see a child display shame, rather than mere disappointment, following a failure?

A)2
B)3
C)5
D)6

Question 52

What do many developmentalists, such as Meltzoff, believe about the sense of self at birth?

A)It is rudimentary.
B)It is advanced relative to motor skills.
C)It is not present at all.
D)It is present as self-recognition.

Question 53

Harrison is trying to open a door on one of his toys, but he is not succeeding.Rather than persisting, he simply stops playing with that toy and shifts his efforts to a different activity.Based on this information, what year of age is Harrison?

A)not yet 2
B)between 2 and 3
C)between 3 and 4
D)between 4 and 5

Question 54

Recent research has identified bullying as a significant contributor to self-esteem.What percentage of students admitted to bullying others?

A)0-4 percent
B)5-13 percent
C)14-20 percent
D)21 percent or higher

Question 55

Which of the following best describes the incremental view of ability?

A)the belief that one's ability can be improved through increased effort and practice
B)the tendency to give up after failing at a task a number of times
C)the tendency to make internal-stable attributions for successes and failures
D)the belief that ability is not influenced by effort or practice

Question 56

Which parenting style is typical of parents whose children have low levels of achievement motivation?

A)permissive
B)authoritarian
C)authoritative
D)autocratic

Question 57

Dweck and associates had an adult respond to Grade 5 students' failures at an anagram task by either criticizing their low effort or their low ability on this task.How did these two different implied attributions affect the children's future attributions for their performance?

A)The children's attribution regarding later failures remained the same regardless of the type of feedback that they received.
B)Children told to work harder improved, and they attributed failures to lack of effort, an attribution associated with a mastery pattern.
C)Children told to work harder later attributed failures to lack of effort, an attribution associated with a helplessness pattern.
D)Those hearing comments that focused on their incorrect solutions later attributed failure to lack of ability, an attribution associated with a mastery pattern.

Question 58

What is the Pre-school Implicit Association Test (PSIAT)?

A)It was adapted to measure self-esteem in 5-year-old children.
B)It was adapted to measure whether children in kindergarten do not yet have a sense of "me."
C)It was adapted to determine whether preschool children identify themselves with more "bad" descriptors than "good" descriptors.
D)It was adapted to assess which preschoolers are unable to form a sense of self.

Question 59

Despite being warm and loving, why are permissive parents more likely to have children who are low in academic achievement?

A)They grant too much autonomy and little monitoring of children's progress.
B)They do not allow children to discover their own solutions to problems.
C)They are not sufficiently critical of failures.
D)They set high standards and praise accomplishments.

Question 60

Suppose you observe a group of students who have just received the results of a midterm test.Based on current research findings, which of the following reasons would a student who views academic success as a valued attribute give for a high mark?

A)"The teacher likes me."
B)"I'm smart and I worked hard."
C)"The test was easy."
D)"I lucked out."

Question 61

According to researchers, when do children first begin to assess their competence by using a peer group for reference?

A)as soon as a sense of categorical self is firmly established
B)during the early preschool years
C)when they enter the stage of industry versus inferiority
D)when they enter the stage of identity versus role confusion

Question 62

During which achievement phase do children show evidence of pride in their achievements?

A)approval-seeking
B)accomplishment
C)use-of-standards
D)mastery-seeking

Question 63

Which of the following best represents the research findings regarding changes to self-esteem as children get older?

A)Self-esteem decreases for most children.
B)Self-esteem decreases only for socially immature children.
C)Self-esteem decreases for males to a greater degree than it does for females.
D)Self-esteem depends on both how children view themselves and how they are viewed by others.

Question 64

Which of the following best summarizes the research findings of Doyle and Aboud regarding prejudicial attitudes in preschool children?

A)They often display at least some understanding of ethnic categories and show a preference for their own group.
B)They generally do not display stereotyping or prejudicial attitudes, regardless of the context.
C)They display stereotyping and prejudicial attitudes only if they are cognitively advanced.
D)They display stereotyping and prejudicial attitudes only if their parents have provided opportunities for imitation of these attitudes.

Question 65

Research suggests that children differ in terms of the importance they assign to various competency domains, as demonstrated by which of the following?

A)Children rate the evaluations of others over their own evaluation.
B)The social looking glass plays no role as children get older and begin to evaluate their own performance independent of the views of others.
C)Children who rate themselves as very competent in the areas they view as important have higher self-worth.
D)Children rely on the social looking glass for development of their self-esteem.

Question 66

Which type of mastery motivation are children demonstrating when they first seek recognition after mastering a challenging task?

A)use-of-standards
B)approval-seeking
C)self-motivation
D)joy-in-mastery

Question 67

At what point in the development of self-recognition does the present self emerge?

A)before the extended self
B)after the categorical self
C)at the same time as the extended self
D)at the same time as the categorical self

Question 68

According to Dweck and associates, many teachers unwittingly foster a sense of learned helplessness through their feedback for a child's successes and failures.Which of the following patterns of attribution are these teachers most likely to use?

A)They attribute success to luck and failure to lack of effort.
B)They attribute success to high effort and failure to low ability.
C)They attribute success to high ability and failure to unfair testing conditions.
D)They attribute success to hard work and failure to low ability.

Question 69

At what age do studies worldwide suggest that prejudice peaks at?

A)3-4 years
B)5-7 years
C)8-10 years
D)puberty

Question 70

Even though Vincenzo is not very good at the logical reasoning required in his philosophy class, he looks forward to each lecture because he is interested in the topic.He views this course as a way to improve his skills.Given this scenario, which type of achievement orientation does Vincenzo have?

A)learned strategic
B)learned helplessness
C)mastery
D)relational

Question 71

How do preschool children most commonly describe themselves?

A)their membership in social categories such as gender and age group
B)the activities they can perform and physical attributes
C)the psychological traits they view themselves as having
D)comparisons to other children in their play group

Question 72

Leon is a Grade 6 teacher who assigns marks based on the quality of submissions, rather than the effort expended on the project.Leon's method of grading represents which view of ability?

A)approval-seeking
B)entity
C)incremental
D)mastery

Question 73

Ivy considers Seneca to be her friend because Seneca does nice things for her, such as sharing candy or toys.When Ivy has candy or new toys, however, she does not feel any obligation to share these with Seneca.With respect to Selman's stages of social perspective taking, at which stage is Ivy most likely to be?

A)1
B)2
C)3
D)4

Question 74

Vladimir understands that even when he and his friend have the same information, they may have different points of view; however, Vladimir is not able to simultaneously consider his own and his friend's perspective.Based on Selman's stages, how old is Vladimir?

A)4 to 6 years
B)6 to 8 years
C)8 to 10 years
D)10 to 12 years

Question 75

According to cross-cultural research, how do the achievement attitudes of Chinese children differ from those of children raised in North America?

A)They are more tolerant of failure.
B)They are less tolerant of failure.
C)They are more likely to view learning a task as an achievement.
D)They are less likely to view learning as a personal virtue.

Question 76

During which of the following developmental phases is a significant increase in self-descriptions, including traits, beliefs, and values, first observed?

A)preschool
B)kindergarten
C)early to middle elementary grades
D)late elementary grades to early adolescence

Question 77

The Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale assesses which of the following domains of self-esteem?

A)openness, contentiousness, extroversion, introversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, self-consciousness
B)academics, appearance, approval from others, competition, family support, God's love, virtue
C)ethnic identity, support, adjustment, quality, achievement, competencies, challenges
D)scholastic competence, social competence, athletic competence, physical appearance, behavioural conduct, global self-worth, domain-specific self-worth

Question 78

In comparison to the friendships of younger children, what characterizes those of older children?

A)They are based on common activities.
B)They are based on mutual trust.
C)They involve a high degree of parental support.
D)They are related to the proximity of school mates.

Question 79

Cummings and colleagues found that child bystanders intervened in bullying incidents for which of the following reasons?

A)Boys were motivated by a high sense of self-efficacy.
B)Girls were motivated by high levels of empathy and had lower levels of pro-bully attitude.
C)Both boys and girls were motivated by a sense of social justice.
D)Both boys and girls were motivated according to adult social expectation.

Question 80

What characterizes the parental behaviour of those children who show a low need to achieve?

A)They set high standards and give praise for success.
B)They offer only tangible rewards for successes.
C)They offer encouragement regardless of success or failure.
D)They monitor their children's academic progress, but also allow autonomy.