Deck 8: The Adaptive Mind: Learning

Question 1

Which of the following is a primary advantage of observational learning?

A)It synchronizes behaviors, particularly between two unacquainted individuals.
B)It creates imprinting in both human beings and lower animal species.
C)It transmits information across generations within families and cultures.
D)It provides rapid adaptation to situations beyond our control.

Answer 1

It transmits information across generations within families and cultures.

Question 2

Why is the process of sensitization advantageous?

A)It improves fixed action patterns.
B)It improves reaction time.
C)It improves cognition.
D)It facilitates adaptation.

Answer 2

It improves reaction time.

Question 3

Inevitable, involuntary responses to stimuli that are primarily controlled by circuits located in the spinal cord and brainstem are referred to as ____.

A)behaviors
B)habits
C)instincts
D)reflexes

Answer 3

reflexes

Question 4

If people are continuously exposed to an unchanging stimulus that they know will not cause them harm, they will be most likely to ____.

A)tolerate the stimulus
B)control their reflexes
C)form an association with the stimulus
D)habituate to the stimulus

Question 5

Which process below is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience?

A)learning
B)fixed action pattern
C)reflex
D)variable action pattern

Question 6

Learning that involves changes in the magnitude of responses to a specific stimulus is referred to as ____ learning. This type of learning does not involve the formation of connections between stimuli.

A)nonassociative
B)associative
C)observational
D)operant

Question 7

As Angel speeds down Elm Avenue, he suddenly slams on his brakes to avoid a collision with another car. Angel's response is an example of a(n)____.

A)reflex
B)variable pattern response
C)learned behavior
D)instinct

Question 8

Why does associative learning provide an enormous survival advantage?

A)Organisms are able to instinctively and rapidly respond to threats.
B)Organisms can comprehend the complex relationship between environment and habitant.
C)Organisms can predict the future and thus are given time to prepare for future events.
D)Organisms can change their behaviors and unpredictably protects them from natural enemies.

Question 9

Sara allows her dog, Isabel, to run freely at a local park. When a truck drives by and its engine backfires loudly, Isabel quickly jumps up on her hind legs and barks loudly. Isabel's response illustrates ____.

A)an instinct
B)operant conditioning
C)sensitization
D)a reflex

Question 10

What distinguishes a reflex from an instinct?

A)In contrast to an instinct, a reflex does not depend on prior experience.
B)In contrast to a reflex, an instinct does not depend on prior experience.
C)An instinct is a more complex behavior than a reflex.
D)A behavior is a more complex behavior than an instinct.

Question 11

Which of the following is an example of nonassociative learning?

A)Andrea recently learned how to drive a car. At first she found merging into highway traffic very stressful, but now can do it with ease.
B)As a child, Maxwell had a frightening experience with his neighbor's large dog. He now fears all large dogs.
C)Hoping to understand more about her parent's culture, Parvati carefully watches as her grandmother prepares a traditional South Indian meal.
D)Gabriel tells his 4-year-old daughter each night: "No dessert until you eat your dinner without complaining." To get the dessert, his daughter obeys.

Question 12

Which process best illustrates the effect of development stages on the interaction between instinct and learning?

A)imprinting
B)facilitating
C)conditioning
D)engulfing

Question 13

An environmental cue or event whose significance is learned is referred to as a(n)____.

A)unconditioned stimulus
B)conditioned stimulus
C)characteristic stimulus
D)uncharacteristic stimulus

Question 14

Which process gives organisms the flexibility to survive in a changing world?

A)learning
B)instincts
C)reflexes
D)variable action patterns

Question 15

Which of the following behavioral changes best illustrates the process of learning?

A)Evan, age 2 months, just started to smile at his parents.
B)Daniel, age 36, sees an attractive woman, which causes his pupils to dilate.
C)Claire, age 8, practices treading water so that she will be allowed to swim in her grandmother's swimming pool.
D)Nathan, age 11, quickly withdrawals his hand from the hot oven as the heat begins to burn his skin.

Question 16

Following a devastating fire that destroyed her home, Lisbeth finds that she is startled by the sound of car horns and sirens, the smell of smoke, and loud noises. This is an example of ____.

A)observational learning
B)habituation
C)sensitization
D)operant conditioning

Question 17

The process of associating a behavior with its consequences is known as ____.

A)habituative learning
B)nonassociative learning
C)classical conditioning
D)operant conditioning

Question 18

Jim and his father are watching the ball game on television. Jim's father starts to yawn and Jim soon follows. This is an example of ____.

A)associative learning
B)an instinct
C)a reflex
D)imitation

Question 19

Learning is traditionally divided into three categories: associative, nonassociative, and ____.

A)classical
B)operant
C)conditioned
D)observational

Question 20

The formation of associations between two stimuli, which occur sequentially in time, is referred to as ____.

A)operant conditioning
B)classical conditioning
C)observational conditioning
D)associative conditioning

Question 21

Jenna, who is recovering from drug addiction, attends counseling sessions so that she will no longer associate the sight of a needle and syringe with an expected drug effect. During the counseling sessions, Jenna handles a syringe without receiving any drugs as her counselor pairs a new signal with the sight of the syringe: a favorite song of Jenna's. The method used here illustrates the use of ____.

A)extinction
B)an inhibitory conditioned stimulus
C)an excitatory unconditioned stimulus
D)cognitive mapping

Question 22

In which of the following scenarios is Roxie, the dog, most likely to rapidly learn to associate a conditioned stimulus with food?

A)When Roxie's owner gets home from work, sometimes she gives Roxie a food treat right away; other times, they go for a short walk before Roxie is given the treat.
B)During the week, Roxie gets treats for not scratching the furniture; during the weekend, she gets treats for performing complex tricks.
C)Roxie's owner has two sons: The older son teaches Roxie tricks and sometimes rewards her with a treat; the younger son likes to play fetch with Roxie.
D)Each morning, Roxie's owner opens the squeaky kitchen cupboard, pours dog food into a bowl, and immediately puts the bowl of food on the floor for Roxie to eat.

Question 23

The development of a conditioned response is called ____. ​

A)generalization
B)higher order conditioning
C)habituation
D)acquisition

Question 24

A reaction to a given stimulus that is learned or acquired over time is referred to as a(n)____.

A)unconditioned response
B)conditioned response
C)characteristic response
D)uncharacteristic response

Question 25

As Ronnie hears a song on the radio, she feels stressed: her heart races, her hands become clammy, and her breathing becomes rapid. The song is familiar because it was very popular at a time when her parents were going through a divorce that caused Ronnie intense anxiety. In this scenario, identify the following in the same respective order: the conditioned stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response, and the unconditioned response.

A)parents fighting; song; anxiety toward parents fighting; anxiety toward song
B)parents fighting; anxiety toward parents fighting; song; anxiety toward song
C)song; parents fighting; anxiety toward song; anxiety toward parents fighting
D)song; anxiety toward song; parents fighting; anxiety toward parents fighting

Question 26

Eli is afraid of bees, and has been ever since he was nearly stung by one a few months ago. Lately, his father has been very distressed to see that Eli is now afraid of any flying insect, even tiny ones like gnats. The fact that Eli gets terribly afraid and runs to another room whenever he sees a flying "bug" demonstrates _____.

A)generalization
B)inhibition
C)acquisition
D)discrimination

Question 27

What mechanism is responsible for the process of extinction?

A)New learning overrides old learning.
B)The previously formed association is forgotten.
C)An aversion is formed in response to the association.
D)Spontaneous recovery replaces the association.

Question 28

Dr. Graham exposes rats to a vanilla scent prior to receiving a food pellet in the left corner of their cage, but provides no food after exposure to a lemon scent. After several trials, upon smelling a vanilla scent, the rats wait at the far left corner of the cage regardless of whether a food pellet is present. However, they do not wait in the far left corner when exposed to the lemon scent. What is the unconditioned stimulus in the experiment?

A)vanilla scent
B)food pellet
C)left corner of cage
D)lemon scent

Question 29

Peter's mother normally arrives home from work in a terrible mood, causing Peter extreme anxiety. However, when Peter sees that his mother is wearing sweat pants, Peter feels at ease, knowing that she has been home from work for a while. Peter's recognition that the sweatpants indicate no reason to feel anxious illustrates ____.

A)extinction
B)latent inhibition
C)higher order conditioning
D)inhibition

Question 30

Which of the following would decrease the likelihood of acquisition?

A)The unconditioned stimulus is presented long after the conditioned stimulus.
B)The unconditioned stimulus is presented shortly after the conditioned stimulus.
C)The conditioned stimulus evokes an emotional response in the participant.
D)The unconditioned stimulus evokes a negative response in the participant.

Question 31

The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to an original conditioned stimulus is called ____.

A)generalization
B)sensitization
C)aggregation
D)habituation

Question 32

The recognition that two different stimuli call for two different responses is known as ____.

A)delectability
B)differentiation
C)desensitization
D)discrimination

Question 33

Tim would like to stop drinking alcohol, but he is finding it difficult to resist the urge to drink when he meets up with friends. Tim's therapist assures him that if he can resist the urge to drink during these social events, his cravings for alcohol will diminish even further, eventually fading away. What process is Tim's therapist describing?

A)avoidance
B)systematic desensitization
C)spontaneous dissipation
D)extinction

Question 34

A reaction to a given stimulus that requires no previous experience is referred to as a(n)____.

A)unconditioned response
B)conditioned response
C)characteristic response
D)uncharacteristic response

Question 35

The reappearance of conditioned responses after periods of rest between sessions of extinction training is called ____.

A)dominant presentation
B)reacquisition
C)spontaneous recovery
D)higher order conditioning

Question 36

Greg, who mainly smoked cigarettes when out with friends, recently quit smoking. However, each time he visits a bar or restaurant with his friends, he has the strong urge to light up a cigarette. This is an example of ____.

A)latent inhibition
B)spontaneous recovery
C)habituation
D)observational learning

Question 37

When a conditioned stimulus can predict the nonoccurrence of an unconditioned stimulus, this is referred to as ____.

A)extinction
B)inhibition
C)latent inhibition
D)discrimination

Question 38

When Roxie the dog was a puppy, she would jump excitedly on anyone who entered the house; receiving praise for her actions. Now that Roxie weighs 65 pounds, Roxie's owner has asked everyone who enters the house to ignore the dog until she settles down. This scenario illustrates the use of ____.

A)latent inhibition
B)discrimination
C)extinction
D)generalization

Question 39

What type of stimulus elicits a response without prior experience -that is, without learning having taken place?

A)classical
B)unconditioned
C)conditioned
D)habitual

Question 40

Jonah is playing on his tablet one evening, when his father asks him to finish up and get ready to take a bath. Jonah nods but completely ignores the request. After a few minutes his father repeats the request with a slightly sterner voice. Jonah says, "Okay, let me just finish this game." Ten minute later, when Jonah has clearly played several more games, his father repeats the request but with a very firm voice. Jonah, knowing that his father is getting angry, puts down the tablet and goes to take a bath. Jonah's different responding to different "voices" from his father illustrates _____.

A)acquisition
B)inhibition
C)discrimination
D)generalization

Question 41

In order to demonstrate the extent to which classical conditioning can be a factor in the development of a serious phobia, John Watson and Rosalie Raynor conducted a study where ______.

A)a young boy was taught to fear a white rat
B)a young adult male was taught to fear cashiers in the supermarket
C)an adolescent girl was conditioned to fear her school teachers
D)a middle-aged woman was conditioned to fear Santa Claus

Question 42

What is a key distinction between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?

A)Classical conditioning generally works best with involuntary, reflexive behaviors; operant conditioning involves voluntary behaviors.
B)Operant conditioning generally works best with involuntary, reflexive behaviors; classical conditioning involves voluntary behaviors.
C)In contrast to classical conditioning, operant conditioning leads to a relatively permanent behavioral change.
D)In contrast to operant conditioning, classical conditioning leads to a relatively permanent behavioral change.

Question 43

A modified cage containing levers or buttons that can be pressed or pecked by animals and is used to investigate operant conditioning is referred to as a ____.

A)puzzle box
B)sequential conditioning chamber
C)Skinner box
D)pigeon chamber

Question 44

What is true of latent inhibition?

A)Learning associated with latent inhibition involves forgetting a response, resulting in relatively poor learning.
B)Learning associated with latent inhibition involves forgetting a response, resulting in very effective learning.
C)Learning associated with latent inhibition is slow, resulting in relatively poor learning.
D)Learning associated with latent inhibition is slow, resulting in very effective learning.

Question 45

Tim, who suffers from alcoholism, is prescribed disulfiram by his doctor to help him halt his alcohol consumption. Disulfiram works by causing unpleasant physiological effects when even small amounts of alcohol are consumed. This type of treatment is best described as ____.

A)counterconditioning
B)flooding
C)systematic desensitization
D)inhibition

Question 46

Counterconditioning in which people relax while being exposed to stimuli that elicit fear is referred to as ____.

A)higher order conditioning
B)habituation
C)latent inhibition
D)systematic desensitization

Question 47

According to Rescorla and Wagner, the association between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus is strongest when the association is ____.

A)consistent
B)surprising
C)familiar
D)variable

Question 48

Dr. Martinez is a psychologist who uses systematic desensitization to help his client, Catherine, address her extreme fear of heights. What technique is Eduardo likely to use?

A)Each week, Eduardo and Catherine take an elevator to the 50th floor of his office building and go outside on the observation deck. They stand close to the edge while he reassures her that everything will be alright.
B)Eduardo teaches Catherine relaxation techniques then gradually, through guided imagery, asks her to imagine herself in a high place. If she starts to feel anxious, they temporarily return to the relaxation techniques.
C)Eduardo and Catherine repeatedly visit a scenic viewpoint at the top of a hill. They have a pleasant picnic there, gradually moving to picnic tables that are closer to the top of the hill.
D)Each week, Eduardo and Catherine take an elevator to the 50th floor of his office building and go outside on the observation deck. They stand there in silence while she internally works through her fear.

Question 49

In Garcia and Koelling's taste aversion study, why were the rats unable to associate a bright-noisy stimulus with feeling ill?

A)The rats lacked the cognitive ability to do so.
B)The rats enjoyed the bright-noisy stimulus enough to tolerate their illness.
C)The rats relied more on taste and smell rather than vision and hearing for identifying food.
D)The rats were so distracted or frightened by the bright-noisy stimulus they did not notice they were ill.

Question 50

Ira has a problem where he tends to speak without thinking, and this has caused him to lose friend and to damage relationships at work. To reduce the frequency of this behavior, Ira wears a rubber band that fit loosely around his wrist .Whenever he begins to speak without thinking, he "snaps" himself with the rubber band just hard enough to sting a little bit. This is an example of ______ therapy.

A)systematic desensitizing
B)insight
C)aversion
D)flooding

Question 51

When he was 9 years old, Mike tried shrimp for the first time but fell very ill shortly thereafter. Within a few hours he was vomiting and was sick for the rest of the night. Now, years later, Mike cannot bring himself to eat shrimp. This is an example of ____.

A)nonassociative learning
B)classical conditioning
C)operant conditioning
D)observational learning

Question 52

What is a key distinction between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?

A)Operant conditioning makes associations between two stimuli; classical conditioning associates a behavior with its consequence.
B)Classical conditioning makes associations between two stimuli; operant conditioning associates a behavior with its consequence.
C)In contrast to classical conditioning, operant conditioning leads to a relatively permanent behavioral change.
D)In contrast to operant conditioning, classical conditioning leads to a relatively permanent behavioral change.

Question 53

Which of the following statements describes a belief of the early behaviorists?

A)Behavior follows the same general rules across species.
B)Psychological research should focus on introspection.
C)Human subjects are preferable to animals because they replicate the complexity of real life.
D)Not all stimuli can be equally paired to form conditioned associations.

Question 54

Thorndike's law of effect states that behavior is ____.

A)based on a strong relationship between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli
B)an adaptation based on imitation
C)"stamped into" an animal relative to the consequences of the behavior
D)predetermined by the type of organism

Question 55

As a gate creaks open, Oscar the puppy notices a cat heading into his yard. The cat hisses and scratches Oscar on the nose, causing Oscar to yelp in pain. Which outcome to this scenario portrays higher order conditioning?

A)Now when Oscar sees the cat who scratched his nose he runs away, but he feels comfortable with the cat with whom he shares a home.
B)Now when Oscar sees a cat or small dog coming toward him, he immediately begins to yelp in pain.
C)Now whenever Oscar sees a cat, including the cat in his own home, he runs away.
D)Now when Oscar hears a gate creak, regardless of who is coming through it, he runs away.

Question 56

At dinner Candace eats several familiar foods (pasta, salad, bread)and an unfamiliar food (mussels). Later that evening she suffers abdominal discomfort. She attributes this to the mussels, but later learns that she had developed a sensitivity to gluten. Her misattribution of the problem to the mussels is likely due to ____.

A)latent inhibition
B)discrimination
C)habituation
D)sensitization

Question 57

Based on the findings of Garcia and Koelling, which type of stimuli would be most effective for training birds? ​

A)visual stimuli
B)aromatic stimuli
C)tactile stimuli
D)audible stimuli

Question 58

What was a key implication of Garcia and Koelling's classic taste aversion studies?

A)The studies demonstrated the common traits of several species.
B)The studies confirmed the applicability of classical conditioning in species other than canines.
C)The studies demonstrated the relative interchangeability of stimuli.
D)The studies highlighted the unique biological predispositions of specific species.

Question 59

Learning in which stimuli associated with a conditioned stimulus also elicit conditioned responding is called ____.

A)sensitization
B)higher order conditioning
C)habituation
D)generalization

Question 60

As a gate creaks open, Oscar the puppy notices a cat heading into his yard. The cat hisses and scratches Oscar on the nose, causing Oscar to yelp in pain. Which outcome to this scenario portrays discrimination?

A)Now when Oscar sees the cat who scratched his nose he runs away, but he feels comfortable with the cat with whom he shares a home.
B)Now when Oscar sees a cat or small dog coming toward him, he immediately begins to yelp in pain.
C)Now whenever Oscar sees a cat, including the cat in his own home, he runs away.
D)Now when Oscar hears a gate creak, regardless of who is coming through it, he runs away.

Question 61

Kate's 6-year-old son has autism. To help him learn daily tasks, she breaks down activities into their component parts. Tooth brushing, for example, involves several steps that occur in basically the same order each time. Which of the following learning principles would provide the strongest foundation for learning how to brush one's teeth in this context?

A)shaping
B)partial reinforcement
C)integrating
D)chaining

Question 62

Derek is frustrated that his 1 ½-year-old dog does not let him know when he needs to go outside to urinate. Sometimes he comes home to find a mess near the door. Which training method is most likely to be successful?

A)Derek takes his dog outside on a fixed schedule and gives him a treat when they return to the house, whether he urinated or not.
B)Derek takes his dog over to the mess, puts the dog's nose near it so he smells it, and tells him "bad dog, don't do this again!"
C)If Derek comes home and finds a mess by the door, he ignores his dog for an hour.
D)Derek takes his dog outside on a fixed schedule and promptly gives him a treat for urinating outside.

Question 63

Richard, who is 16 years old, misses his curfew and as a result is grounded by his parents. He is not allowed to leave the house, see his friends, or use his cell phone for 1 week. His parent's actions illustrate ____.

A)negative reinforcement
B)positive punishment
C)positive reinforcement
D)negative punishment

Question 64

After a stressful day of work, Randi often makes small burn marks on her inner arm with a cigarette; which she feels helps to relieve her stress and anxiety. This type of behavior is an example of ____.

A)positive punishment
B)negative reinforcement
C)positive reinforcement
D)negative punishment

Question 65

A reinforcer that gains value from being associated with other things that are valued is called a(n)____ reinforcer.

A)unconditioned
B)primary
C)conditioned
D)associative

Question 66

Marcus, who runs a software development company, repeatedly thanks his administrative assistant, Shana, for her hard work. Lately however, Marcus neglects to acknowledge the accomplishments of Shana; Shana's performance has begun to decline. What likely contributed to Shana's performance problems?

A)negative reinforcement
B)latent inhibition
C)negative punishment
D)extinction

Question 67

Nick wants to encourage his 6-year-old daughter, Anna, to help with family chores. He makes an outline of a rainbow with seven bands so that Anna can color in a band each time she does a chore. If she does seven chores in a week, coloring in the full rainbow, she gets $1. Nick's technique demonstrates which methods?

A)habituation, positive punishment, and a fixed interval schedule
B)shaping, negative reinforcement, and a variable interval schedule
C)chaining, negative punishment, and a variable ratio schedule
D)a token economy, positive reinforcement, and a fixed ratio schedule

Question 68

How can extinction be avoided with operant conditioning?

A)Establish a strong value for a conditioned stimulus.
B)Introduce variable reinforcement paradigms.
C)Merge classical conditioning with operant conditioning techniques.
D)Continuously reinforce a behavior, even after it is learned.

Question 69

Determining whether an action constitutes reinforcement or punishment requires understanding ____.

A)the intrinsic quality of the consequence
B)specific social and cultural norms associated with the action
C)the action's effect on behavior
D)the external stimulus driving the action

Question 70

The method for increasing behaviors that allow an organism to escape or avoid an unpleasant consequence is referred to as ____.

A)positive punishment
B)positive reinforcement
C)negative punishment
D)negative reinforcement

Question 71

Which of the following methods of behavior modification adheres to the Premack Principle?

A)Knowing his daughter loves to ride her bike, Miguel states: "You can ride your bike as soon as you clean your room."
B)Donna comes home to find that her dog has chewed her expensive new shoes and yells: "Bad dog."
C)Knowing his daughter loves to ride her bike, Miguel states: "You didn't clean your room today, so no bike riding for you this weekend."
D)Donna makes a loud noise each time her dog approaches her shoes; causing him to veer away.

Question 72

Mrs. Collora teaches social studies to junior high school students. Two boys in her class often loudly make jokes about the material being discussed. She has tried several techniques without success: (1)ignoring them; (2)encouraging and rewarding them for contributing to the class discussion; (3)removing their opportunities to participate in field trips; and (4)requiring them each to write an essay on proper behavior. In the order presented, list the operant conditioning principles she has applied to the situation.

A)extinction, positive reinforcement, negative punishment, positive punishment
B)positive punishment, positive reinforcement, extinction, negative punishment
C)negative punishment, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, extinction
D)extinction, positive reinforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment

Question 73

Which of the following is an example of a conditioned reinforcer?

A)food
B)money
C)sleep
D)water

Question 74

Sonia first trains her new dog by saying "good dog!" before giving him a food treat. She then trains her dog to sit and stay, saying "good dog!" when he provides the correct behavior; while continuing to periodically provide a food treat. Sonia is using which method(s)?

A)operant conditioning only
B)operant conditioning and observational learning
C)classical conditioning and operant conditioning
D)classical conditioning only

Question 75

What is true of operant conditioning?

A)It involves either voluntary or involuntary behaviors depending on the response state.
B)It involves either voluntary or involuntary behaviors depending on the stimulus.
C)It generally involves involuntary behaviors.
D)It generally involves voluntary behaviors.

Question 76

A consequence that eliminates or reduces the frequency of a behavior by applying an aversive stimulus is referred to as ____.

A)negative reinforcement
B)positive punishment
C)negative punishment
D)positive reinforcement

Question 77

Lucia, who experiences extreme anxiety when taking an exam, practices meditation breathing to reduce her anxiety prior to taking a test. Her meditation breathing is an example of ____.

A)negative punishment
B)negative reinforcement
C)positive punishment
D)positive reinforcement

Question 78

Martha wants to teach her dog Max the command, "Get beer, Max." This involves going to the refrigerator and opening it by pulling on a dishtowel tied to the handle, taking out a can of beer with his mouth, and bringing it to her dinner guest. Which of the following training methods is likely to work best?

A)chaining and positive reinforcement
B)shaping and positive punishment
C)chaining and negative punishment
D)shaping and negative reinforcement

Question 79

Three conditions must be met for punishment to have any observable effects on behavior: ____.

A)application, explanation, and reinforcement ​
B)selection, focus, and severity
C)significance, immediacy, and consistency
D)quality, quantity, and relevance

Question 80

Which of the following is likely to provide the most powerful method for managing behavior?

A)positive punishment
B)positive reinforcement
C)negative punishment
D)conditioned reinforcement