Deck 7: Labeling and Reintegrative Shaming Theory

Question 1

Although labeling theory has several implications for criminal and juvenile justice policy, they have been largely ignored by practitioners and policymakers.

Answer 1

False

Question 2

Labeling theory hypothesizes that it is primarily the behavior of the deviants that determines whether or not stigmatizing labels are applied to them.

Answer 2

False

Question 3

Cooley's "looking-glass self" concept posits that even young children have an inner awareness of distinct personal desires, preferences, and abilities that is resistant to social pressure.

Answer 3

False

Question 4

Why people commit initial acts of deviance is beyond the scope of labeling theory.

Question 5

Labeling theory focuses only on the negative effects of formal labels of deviance, ignoring the effects of informal labeling.

Question 6

Labeling theorists make predictions about the effects of the application of social sanctions that are opposite to those made by deterrence theorists.

Question 7

Labeling theorists contend that people can be taught to refrain from illegal behavior by increasing awareness and fear of the social stigma that accompanies a criminal conviction.

Question 8

According to labeling theory, being labeled deviant depends more on who you are than on what you do.

Question 9

Labeling theorists contend that stigmatizing labels are applied differentially to members of less powerful social groups.

Question 10

Recent studies suggest that informal labeling (e.g., by parents, teachers, and others) may have the unintended consequence of contributing to delinquency.

Question 11

John Braithwaite tested his theory of reintegrative shaming by examining rates of staff compliance with nursing home regulations.

Question 12

The policy implications of labeling theory lend support to programs that keep delinquents in the juvenile justice system as long as possible without increasing the costs.

Question 13

The evidence from research on labeling theory shows that the stigmatizing labels that result from being caught and punished by the official juvenile or criminal justice system have more of an impact on continuation of a deviant career than do all the social and psychological factors that caused the behavior in the first place.

Question 14

In Braithwaite's theory, reintegrative shaming that reconciles the offender with the community is more likely in communitarian societies.

Question 15

Labeling theory hypothesizes that the application of stigmatizing labels enhances or amplifies deviance, even though it does not have much of an effect on the person's self-identity.

Question 16

Net-Widening occurs when diversion has the unintended result of placing more, rather than fewer, youth under involuntary control in the community than would have been the case without a diversion policy in place.

Question 17

What evidence has thus far been produced by research on "faith-based" programs in prisons shows that they are primarily run by religious fanatics and have no effect on postrelease recidivism.

Question 18

Although there has not yet been much research done, there is some evidence that faith-based treatment and rehabilitation programs in prisons have positive effects on offenders' reintegration into the community and reduction of their risk of recidivism.

Question 19

In Braithwaite's latest statements about reintegrative shaming theory, he argues that it attempts to use both explanatory theory and "normative theory."

Question 20

Restorative justice programs offer entirely new ways of responding to crime that have never been implemented in the past or in other societies.

Question 21

Restorative justice conferences are not cost-effective, but very effective at reducing recidivism among offenders participating in them.

Question 22

Labeling theory as an explanation of criminal and deviant behavior:

A) derives from symbolic interactionism theory in sociology
B) views criminal labels as the dependent variable
C) hypothesizes that applying stigmatizing labels increases the probability of future criminality
D) has received strong empirical support
E) a and c

Question 23

In Braithwaite's modification of labeling theory:

A) disintegrative shaming occurs when no attempt is made to reconcile the offender with the community
B) all shaming is stigmatizing and likely to increase the crime rate
C) higher crime rates are found in communities that practice reintegrative shaming
D) criminal subcultures will be found only in nonintegrative societies
E) b and c

Question 24

Responses to problems created by societal reaction to one's deviance are:

A) role engulfment
B) secondary deviance
C) the dramatization of evil
D) self-fulfilling prophecy
E) retrospective interpretation

Question 25

Labeling theory has its intellectual roots in the general sociological theory of:

A) symbolic interactionism
B) dialectic materialism
C) functionalism
D) cultural relativism
E) structuralism

Question 26

The term "looking-glass self" refers to the idea that:

A) unless we look ourselves in the mirror occasionally and take stock of who we are, we are susceptible to peer pressure
B) people define themselves by seeing themselves reflected in the reactions of others
C) our self-conceptions and how we appear to others may be very different
D) the way we think that we appear to others is often like the distorted image in a carnival mirror
E) c and d

Question 27

According to labeling theorists, which of the following processes is involved in the creation of primary deviance?

A) association with deviant peers
B) criminal justice processing
C) societal stereotyping
D) self-labeling
E) none of the above

Question 28

Labeling theory is consistent with the development of which of the following social policies?

A) diversion of offenders from the justice system
B) deinstitutionalization of offenders
C) decriminalization of offenses
D) ignoring violations of law
E) all of the above

Question 29

Which of the following propositions has been supported by empirical research?

A) The application of deviant labels is based largely upon societal stereotypes of deviants.
B) The causes of initial minor acts of deviance are not important factors in the development of a deviant career.
C) People are basically powerless to avoid the negative consequences of stigmatizing labels.
D) Official sanctions have profound effects on the development of negative self-concepts.
E) none of the above

Question 30

Braithwaite proposes that the negative effects of labeling can be avoided if punishment of a deviant act:

A) follows quickly upon the commission of the act
B) is accompanied by incapacitation of the offender
C) is accompanied by efforts to communicate forgiveness and to embrace the offender as a valuable member of society
D) is limited to "isolating" acts of public humiliation (e.g., branding, corporal punishment), rather than incarceration of offenders with other deviants
E) a and b

Question 31

Which of the following concepts represents more recent developments in labeling theory?

A) retrospective interpretation
B) role engulfment
C) secondary deviance
D) positive punishment
E) reintegrative shaming

Question 32

Research on juvenile delinquency and juvenile court appearances has found that the most important predictor of recidivism was:

A) diversion from the juvenile justice system
B) referral to the juvenile justice system
C) prior history of delinquency
D) negative self-conception
E) minority group status

Question 33

Deviance that occurs as an adaptation to the stigma attached to a deviant label is called:

A) secondary deviance
B) reactionary deviance
C) systematic deviance
D) recidivism
E) primary deviance

Question 34

Labeling theory focuses on each of the following except:

A) how certain behaviors come to be defined as criminal
B) how certain people are selected for the application of deviant labels
C) the stigmatizing consequences of labeling
D) the deterrent benefits of labeling
E) labeling theory focuses on all of the above

Question 35

Symbolic interactionism calls attention to:

A) how associations with deviant peers contribute to deviance
B) how symbols are manipulated by the powerful to create meanings that cast the less powerful in a negative light
C) how symbols are manipulated by the powerful to create wants and needs that the socially disadvantaged are unable to satisfy
D) how the language and gestures of face-to-face communication shape individuals' conceptions of themselves
E) b and c

Question 36

Studies of adolescent and adult offenders indicate that the application of formal legal sanctions:

A) tends to abort criminal careers
B) tends to promote recidivism
C) has little effect on offenders' future behavior
D) has noticeable negative effects on recidivism
E) tends to have a positive labeling effect

Question 37

Braithwaite argues that the kind of response that an offender receives has important implications for his or her future behavior. In this regard, he draws a distinction between:

A) shaming that is accompanied by rejection and exclusion versus shaming that is accompanied by forgiveness and re-embracing the offender as a member of the community
B) shaming that is carried out by official agents of social control versus shaming that is carried out informally
C) public humiliation versus punishment that is carried out behind closed doors
D) punishment versus treatment
E) punitive responses that hold offenders morally blameworthy for their actions versus sympathetic responses that recognize that offenders are products of the disruptive and dehumanizing social settings in which they live

Question 38

Which of the following programs rest in large part on reintegrative shaming theory?

A) adolescent transition programs
B) faith-based programs
C) restorative justice programs
D) a and b only
E) b and c only

Question 39

Research evaluating restorative justice programs has:

A) produced strong evidence that restorative justice programs reduce the risk of reoffending
B) produced mixed evidence that such programs increase victims' and offenders' satisfaction and sense of being treated fairly
C) tended not to focus on whether or not such programs reduce recidivism
D) a and b
E) b and c

Question 40

Compare and contrast the predictions made by labeling theorists and deterrence theorists with respect to the utility of criminal punishment.

Question 41

Discuss Cooley's concept of the "looking-glass self," and explain its significance for labeling theory in criminology.

Question 42

What are the implications of labeling theory for understanding the social distribution of crime by race, sex, and social class? Does research support this view?

Question 43

Discuss the revision of labeling theory proposed by John Braithwaite. In what ways do Braithwaite's ideas overlap with those of social bonding and social learning theories?

Question 44

Explain how labeling theory has had an impact on juvenile justice policy in the United States.

Question 45

Labeling theory utilizes stigmatizing labels as both an independent and a dependent variable. Define what this means, and delineate the ways in which labeling theory uses both in the explanation of deviance as a social phenomenon.

Question 46

Identify the central concepts and propositions in labeling theory, and evaluate the extent to which it is supported by empirical research.

Question 47

Evaluate diversion programs. What is diversion, and what is it designed to achieve? In what way is it based on labeling theory? How effective have diversion programs been, and what problems have they encountered?

Question 48

How much research has been done to test directly John Braithwaite's theory that reintegrative shaming will reduce, whereas disintegrative shaming will increase, the likelihood of future offending? Does this research support or contradict the theory?

Question 49

What is "restorative justice," and what kinds of programs are usually included as restorative justice? Have these programs been effective? Give specific examples.

Question 50

Here is a list of social psychological theories we have analyzed thus far in the course:
A. social bonding theory
B. social learning theory
C. self-control theory
D. labeling theory
E. reintegrative shaming theory
(1) Choose one of these theories, and identify its major concepts and central propositions. Then, using the major criteria identified in Akers and Sellers, evaluate that theory.
OR
(2) Choose one of these theories, and address the question of what the policy implications of the theory are. Describe one or more programs or policies that are based on or reflect the principles of that theory. Have such programs been evaluated, and if so, what were the findings of that research on how effective or successful the programs were?
OR
(3) Compare and contrast the strengths and weaknesses of any two of these theories

Question 51

Discuss how labeling can be either the dependent or independent variable. What does this say about the theory and the theory's testability?

Question 52

How do you think the concept of the looking-glass self applies to individuals convicted of a crime? Do you think the effect changes if the person was innocent? Explain.

Question 53

Do you think radical nonintervention is an appropriate diversion program for a first-time juvenile offender? What could the possible pros and cons of nonintervention be? How do you think nonintervention would affect recidivism rates?

Question 54

What is the key concept of Braithwaite's theory? How could this concept be implemented in the criminal justice system?