Deck 3: Learning to Be a Criminal: Differential Association, Subcultural, and Social Learning Theories

Question 1

Which of the following is true about Sutherland's (or Sutherland and Cressey's) theory of differential association?

A) It argues that people commit crime mainly by seeing violence in the movies.
B) It argues that learning to be criminal is different from learning other forms of behavior that are not criminal.
C) It argues that people become criminal when there is an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law.
D) It argues that white-collar crimes are learned, while street crimes (e.g., homicide, robbery, burglary, etc.) are a result of mental illness.

Answer 1

C

Question 2

Sutherland (or Sutherland and Cressey) indicates that differential associations may vary in

A) Frequency, intimacy, favorability, unfavorability.
B) Frequency, criminality, heritability, likability.
C) Criminality, heritability, popularity, intimacy.
D) Frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.

Answer 2

D

Question 3

Sutherland's (or Sutherland and Cressey's) theory of differential association

A) Argues that crime and noncrime are largely a function of imitation.
B) Argues that crime, but not noncrime, is largely a function of imitation.
C) Argues that criminal and noncriminal behavior are learned in similar ways.
D) Argues that macro-level characteristics or processes are unimportant in learning.

Answer 3

C

Question 4

In Akers's social learning theory, which of the following concepts refers to the balance of anticipated or actual rewards or punishments that follow behavior?

A) Differential association.
B) Definitions.
C) Differential reinforcement.
D) Imitation.

Question 5

In Akers's social learning theory, which of the following concepts refers to the process by which a person is exposed to definitions favorable or unfavorable to illegal behavior?

A) Differential association.
B) Definitions.
C) Differential reinforcement.
D) Imitation.

Question 6

In Akers's social learning theory, which of the following concepts refers to the engagement of behavior after the observation of similar behavior in others?

A) Differential association.
B) Definitions.
C) Differential reinforcement.
D) Imitation.

Question 7

In Akers's social learning theory, which of the following concepts refers to the attitudes or meanings that are attached to a behavior?

A) Differential association.
B) Definitions.
C) Differential reinforcement.
D) Imitation.

Question 8

In Akers's social learning theory, removing an aversive stimulus is referred to as

A) Positive reinforcement.
B) Negative reinforcement.
C) Direct punishment.
D) Indirect punishment.

Question 9

In Akers's social learning theory, removing a positive stimulus is referred to as

A) Positive reinforcement.
B) Negative reinforcement.
C) Direct punishment.
D) Indirect punishment.

Question 10

According to Akers's social learning theory, which of the following is true?

A) Imitation becomes more important as deviant acts are repeated.
B) Reinforcements always precede rather than follow deviant acts.
C) Differential associations affect and are affected by deviant acts.
D) Thoughts about the "rightness" of deviant acts always precede the act.

Question 11

Which of the following is true according to Akers's theory of social structure and social learning?

A) Social structural factors and social learning factors both directly affect behavior.
B) Social learning factors only affect behavior in certain social structural environments.
C) Social structural factors indirectly affect behavior. That is, social structural factors affect social learning factors which, in turn, directly affect criminal behavior.
D) Social learning factors indirectly affect behavior. That is, social learning factors directly affect social structural factors which, in turn, directly affect behavior.

Question 12

Akers's empirical tests of social learning theories suggest which of the following?

A) Definitions have been shown to be related to delinquency, but differential reinforcements have not been shown to be related to delinquency.
B) All four social learning variables have been shown to be related to smoking and drinking, but none has been shown to be related to more criminal delinquency (e.g., serious drug use, rape, violence).
C) Definitions and differential reinforcement have been shown to be related to delinquency, but differential associations and imitation have not been shown to be related to delinquency.
D) All four social learning variables have been shown to be related to various forms of deviant behavior.

Question 13

Macro-level learning theories argue which of the following?

A) Social learning factors indirectly affect behavior. That is, social learning factors directly affect social structural factors which, in turn, directly affect behavior.
B) Definitions and differential reinforcements are important in predicting delinquency, but differential associations and imitation are not important.
C) Certain groups have values conducive to crime, so crime will be highest in areas with such groups.
D) Certain individuals have an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law; crime is more likely among those individuals.

Question 14

Which criminologist(s) argued that higher rates of crime are found in lower-class areas because members of the lower class have a culture that values trouble, toughness, smartness, and excitement?

A) Sutherland (and Cressey).
B) Akers.
C) Anderson.
D) Miller.

Question 15

Elijah Anderson's research on the code of the streets suggested which of the following?

A) Only the children of street families are exposed to the street culture.
B) Street families encourage delayed gratification among their children.
C) Street families often have superficial and sporadic family relationships.
D) Street families and decent families always live in different areas.

Question 16

Which concept is at the heart of the code of the street, according to Anderson?

A) Respect.
B) Decency.
C) Addiction.
D) Reinforcement.

Question 17

Elijah Anderson's research on the code of the streets suggested which of the following?

A) Most people in inner-city areas are completely invested in the code.
B) Decent and street families can exist within the same extended kinship network.
C) The code is applicable to adults in the inner city, but not to children and adolescents.
D) Street families are the working poor.

Question 18

Which of the following is true about girls and the street code, according to Anderson's work?

A) Girls are not subject to the code of the street; rather, they are protected by it.
B) Girls in inner-city areas with a street code have developed their own sense of honor/status, based on things like beauty and boyfriends.
C) Girls in inner-city areas tend to defend their honor/status with violence using guns as opposed to fists.
D) Girls in inner-city areas rely exclusively on the men/boys in their lives to defend their honor/status.

Question 19

Overall, research to date on macro-level learning theories suggests which of the following?

A) Young males and Southerners do not condemn crime.
B) Blacks do not condemn crime as strongly as do whites.
C) Most groups condemn crime, but there are differences in the extent of the condemnation.
D) Those living in more disadvantaged areas tend to condemn crime more so than do those in more prosperous areas.

Question 20

The criticism that "the theory fails to fully describe the process by which crime is learned" is most often heard in relation to which theory?

A) Differential association theory.
B) Social learning theory.
C) Social structure and social learning.
D) Subculture of violence thesis.

Question 21

Why does crime occur, according to differential association theory? Describe the theory's key concepts and propositions.

Question 22

According to Sutherland (and Sutherland and Cressey), our associations do not carry equal weight; some are more influential than others. What types of associations carry the greatest weight in influencing our behavior?

Question 23

Discuss in detail three major criticisms of differential association theory.

Question 24

Why does crime initially occur, according to social learning theory? Describe the theory's central concepts and propositions.

Question 25

Describe how the process of social learning changes after initiation into deviance. In doing so, highlight the feedback effects among the theory's central concepts.

Question 26

Provide a description of the empirical support for social learning theory.

Question 27

Discuss in detail three major criticisms of social learning theory.

Question 28

How does Akers extend his earlier work on social learning theory with the idea of social structure and social learning?

Question 29

Explain in detail the differences between decent families and street families according to Anderson's research.

Question 30

What is the code of the street? Explain its components (central values and norms) in detail. Why does it emerge? How does it affect rates of crime in inner-city areas?

Question 31

To what extent does the code of the street affect the behavior of girls?