Deck 8: How Stimuli Guide Instrumental Action

Question 1

Stimulus control has been demonstrated to

A) be one of the less common forms of learning in nature.
B) be confined mainly to visual stimuli.
C) require mammalian memory processes.
D) produce changes in prey as well as predators.

Answer 1

D

Question 2

The term "cryptic," when used to refer to a stimulus, means that it is a signal

A) for a potentially lethal outcome.
B) that is ambiguous in meaning.
C) that is difficult to detect.
D) for multiple similar outcomes.

Answer 2

C

Question 3

Research on stimulus control has shown that

A) the methods allow for the study of cognition.
B) predators often develop polymorphisms as a result of predation.
C) language is necessary for concept learning.
D) search images are fundamental for rats.

Answer 3

A

Question 4

The phenomenon of a "search image" is connected to the ability of animals to

A) treat virtual images on a computer screen as if they were real three-dimensional stimuli.
B) modify an innate prey image as a result of experience with a variety of actual prey.
C) develop a conceptual image using key prey features that improve search efficiency.
D) learn to search a field in a systematic fashion so that all existing images are detected.

Question 5

"Polymorphism" refers to the finding that members of

A) the same species use a variety of search and hunting strategies.
B) the same species develop physical differences, in part due to predation risk.
C) different species that look similar are treated similarly by predators.
D) different species learn to act similarly to increase mating options or reduce predation risks.

Question 6

Current research on stimulus control suggests that

A) unobservable cognitive processes regulate stimulus control in humans and animals.
B) animals form a multitude of stimulus-outcome associations instead of forming concepts.
C) young animals and children learn concepts differently from the way adults of their species do.
D) cognitive processes regulate human but not animal stimulus-control learning.

Question 7

Good eyesight and the ability to tell the difference between many different stimuli are key for studying categorization, thus the _______ is an ideal testing situation.

A) rat in a water maze
B) rat in a radial maze
C) pigeon with a touchscreen
D) scrub jay with an ice tray

Question 8

Which statement about a polymorphous concept is true?

A) It is open-ended and complex because it has fuzzy boundaries.
B) It is readily learned by a variety of species after minimal training.
C) It is biologically relevant or significant to all members of a given species.
D) It is associated with a variety of different but similarly valued outcomes (e.g., money, fame).

Question 9

In concept learning research with pigeons, it is important to test with new examples because

A) most new examples are miscategorized, showing that most demonstrations only demonstrate memory.
B) new examples are necessary to rule out simple stimulus generalization.
C) pigeons can remember well over 500 photographs, so what might appear to be concept learning could just be good memory.
D) category learning in pigeons is controversial among learning theorists.

Question 10

Researchers studying the ability of pigeons to learn categories found that they are capable of learning

A) multiple categories, though this observation may be based on a particular training method.
B) one concept at a time, but not multiple concepts simultaneously.
C) abstract or uncommon concepts like painting styles or fish types, but not everyday, mundane concepts like grain types or plant types.
D) categories involving stimuli that they encounter every day, showing that preparedness is involved.

Question 11

Researchers can teach pigeons concepts by

A) first classically conditioning examples of the concept, and then instrumentally conditioning differential pecking.
B) first conditioning each concept separately, and then gradually increasing the number of multiple concepts to be differentiated.
C) fading-in wrong examples and lengthening the stimulus viewing time as the number of simultaneously occurring stimuli increase.
D) presenting correct and incorrect examples and providing a reward only when the subject responds to the correct example.

Question 12

Research on concept learning in pigeons has shown that

A) exceptional long-term memory is required for pigeons to learn categories.
B) pigeons process visual information in meaningful chunks, which they later categorize.
C) stimulus control is a powerful method for investigating more than just simple choice.
D) category learning does not appear to be able to be blocked.

Question 13

On a four-category simultaneous discrimination experiment, pigeons demonstrated their categorical knowledge by pecking on

A) each of four pictured examples in the order in which the categories had been learned.
B) one of four available keys that was consistently associated with one of four concepts.
C) a category example different from four shown on each block of four trials.
D) the best example of a category from four shown on each trial.

Question 14

Which statement about transfer tests is true?

A) Transfer tests are performed using concept example stimuli from the training phase.
B) Transfer tests using novel stimuli produce higher accuracy scores than tests using original training stimuli.
C) Transfer tests provide evidence that the subject has learned the concept instead of just memorizing the stimuli.
D) Transfer test accuracy is higher when the subject is trained with just a few category examples rather than many examples, which may produce confusion or interference.

Question 15

Researchers studying concept learning are attempting to train subjects to respond to pictures of flowers by pressing one key, to pictures of dogs by pressing another key, and to pictures that lack of dogs or flowers by pressing a third key. Which result would suggest that a subject has learned the concepts?

A) In the test phase the subject responds correctly to new pictures of flowers and new pictures of dogs.
B) In the test phase the subject responds to yellow flowers but not red flowers, and only to dogs that resemble those presented during training.
C) In the test phase, the subject presses the third key in response to pictures with neither flowers nor dogs.
D) In the test phase, the subject presses the third key when the picture contains a flower and a dog.

Question 16

If subjects have learned a concept and then are exposed to new stimuli during the transfer test, they will likely

A) learn to respond to the new test stimuli faster than they responded to the original training stimuli.
B) respond only to the original training stimuli.
C) respond most to stimuli that resemble the original training stimuli and less to stimuli that are different from the original training stimuli.
D) respond similarly to new test stimuli that have features of the original concept.

Question 17

Pigeons are taught the concept of "bicycle." Subjects that then respond to stimuli according to the similarity of the test image to the memory of the previous bicycle images would support the _______ theory.

A) transfer
B) prototype
C) feature
D) exemplar

Question 18

Pigeons are taught the concept of "boat." Subjects that then respond to stimuli according to a typical or average boat image as the standard to which all new stimuli are compared would support the _______ theory.

A) transfer
B) prototype
C) feature
D) exemplar

Question 19

Pigeons are taught the concept of "shoe." Subjects that then respond to stimuli by associating laces, eyeholes, or heels with reinforcement would exemplify the _______ theory.

A) transfer
B) prototype
C) feature
D) exemplar

Question 20

An adult introducing zoo animals to a child names and points out the features of each animal as they tour the zoo. In the section for hoofed mammals (e.g., deer, gazelles, antelopes, etc.), the child-despite the adult's explanations-calls everything a "deer." As they enter the next area, the child also calls a rhinoceros a "deer." The child's use of horns/no horns as a categorization system for "deer" illustrates the _______ theory approach to concept learning.

A) transfer
B) prototype
C) feature.
D) exemplar

Question 21

Subjects in a study are asked to press a left-hand key if the image on a computer screen is a bird or a right-hand key if it is not a bird, and to respond as quickly as possible. On any given trial, they may see a bird or some other image (e.g., window, car, pencil, cow, flower, paintbrush, etc.). On one trial, an image of a penguin is flashed on the screen and a subject responds by pressing the "not a bird" key. This error could be explained by _______ theory, specifically by using the argument that a penguin does not resemble a typical bird.

A) transfer
B) prototype
C) feature
D) exemplar

Question 22

Subjects in a study are asked to press a left-hand key if the image on a computer screen is a bird or a right-hand key if it is not a bird, and to respond as quickly as possible. On any given trial they may see a bird or some other image (e.g., window, car, pencil, cow, flower, paintbrush, etc.). On one trial, an image of a bat is flashed on screen and a subject responds by pressing the left-hand "is a bird" key. This error could be explained by _______ theory, specifically by using the argument that a bat shares a number of characteristics with birds.

A) transfer
B) prototype
C) feature
D) exemplar

Question 23

Prototype theory assumes that subjects learn a concept by

A) learning which features are rewarded and which are nonrewarded.
B) memorizing all training stimuli and responding to new stimuli based on their similarity to each training stimulus.
C) developing a generic or average image and comparing new stimuli to that holistic image.
D) avoiding stimuli that lack a key feature of the original training stimuli.

Question 24

Feature theory assumes that subjects learn a concept by

A) learning which features are rewarded and which are nonrewarded.
B) memorizing all training stimuli and responding to new stimuli based on their similarity to each training stimulus.
C) developing a generic or average image and comparing new stimuli to that holistic image.
D) avoiding stimuli that lack a key feature of the original training stimuli.

Question 25

Exemplar theory assumes that subjects learn a concept by

A) learning which features are rewarded and which are nonrewarded.
B) memorizing all training stimuli and responding to new stimuli based on their similarity to each training stimulus.
C) developing a generic or average image and comparing new stimuli to that holistic image.
D) avoiding stimuli that lack a key feature of the original training stimuli.

Question 26

Responding on a generalization gradient will

A) be flat if the subject cannot distinguish between the training and the comparison stimuli.
B) be steep if the subject is tested with a variety of comparison stimuli similar to the training stimulus.
C) peak at a comparison stimulus similar to the training stimulus, rather than at the training stimulus.
D) extinguish rapidly during testing, with the largest drop in responding occurring to the training stimulus.

Question 27

Subjects' responses are likely to demonstrate a sharper or steeper generalization gradient if the researchers use

A) one intense stimulus as the S^D or training stimulus.
B) one intense stimulus as the S^D and one weak stimulus as the S^Δ training stimulus.
C) two intense stimuli as the S^D and S^Δ training stimuli.
D) two similar stimuli as the S^D and S^Δ training stimuli.

Question 28

Which statement about generalization gradients is false?

A) Generalization gradients produced by discrimination training are steeper than those produced by a single stimulus exposure.
B) Responding always falls off reliably as the difference between the test and training stimuli increases.
C) Generalization gradients become increasingly sharper or steeper the more similar the two training stimuli are.
D) The peak of responding on a generalization gradient is less likely to be at the S^D training stimulus as the S^D and S^Δ become more similar.

Question 29

Which conclusion is supported by the figure below?

A) Inhibition produces a flatter gradient than excitation.
B) Inhibition is stronger than excitation.
C) Peak shift in behavior should be observed for both excitation and inhibition.
D) Peak shift was not observed.

Question 30

Peak shift is said to occur when two

A) stimuli are so similar that subjects have difficulty distinguishing between them, and thus the peak of the responses shifts so that they respond similarly to both.
B) discriminative stimuli are very similar and produce maximal responding to a stimulus near the S^D and away from the S^Δ.
C) similar stimuli are reinforced and produce a broader peak of maximal responding to more stimuli than would have occurred if only one stimulus had been reinforced.
D) discriminative stimuli are dissimilar and produce maximal responding to a stimulus midway between the S^D and the S^Δ.

Question 31

Spence assumed that excitatory and inhibitory gradients interact,

A) magnifying the effect of both gradients.
B) opposing or reducing the effect of both gradients.
C) but that excitatory gradients are stronger and tend to cancel the effects of inhibitory gradients.
D) but that inhibitory gradients are stronger and tend to cancel the effects of excitatory gradients.

Question 32

Peak shift is most likely to occur when researchers use a _______ as the S^D and a _______ as the S^Δ.

A) low tone; bright light
B) loud tone; bright light
C) blue light; violet light
D) high-pitched tone; low-pitched buzzer

Question 33

If pigeons are given grain when a 600 nm light is on the key, and no grain when a 580 nm light is on the key, the subjects during testing are likely to respond most to a key lighted with a _______ light.

A) 590 nm
B) 560 nm
C) 630 nm
D) 600 nm
E) 570 nm

Question 34

Which statement is not a reason for researchers' interest in the peak shift phenomenon?

A) It produces paradoxically high responding to a stimulus that has never been directly reinforced.
B) It illustrates the role of inhibition in discrimination learning.
C) It may affect the evolution of physical differences among members of a species.
D) It provides an explanation for aspects of polymorphous concept learning.

Question 35

Travis asks a girl with three visible tattoos to dance with him at a party, and she says no. He then asks another girl, who has no tattoos, to dance, and she says yes. Later he sees two other girls: one has three tattoos, like the girl who turned him down, and the other has six tattoos. He asks the girl with three tattoos to dance. Travis is exhibiting

A) peak shift.
B) category learning.
C) perceptual learning.
D) transposition.

Question 36

Spence's theory suggests that transposition effects occur due to

A) learning that has taken place about the relationships between stimuli (e.g., which stimulus is brighter than another).
B) the interaction of excitatory and inhibitory gradients.
C) the overshadowing of the inhibitory gradient by the excitatory gradient.
D) the extinction of excitatory responding during extinction testing.

Question 37

Perceptual learning refers to a situation in which

A) sensory discriminations facilitate the subsequent discrimination learning of a motor response.
B) sensory discriminations facilitate insight learning and imitation.
C) simple nonreinforced exposure to stimuli facilitates subsequent discrimination learning.
D) reinforcement of a particular stimulus (e.g., red light) facilitates discrimination learning between stimuli in the same stimulus dimension (e.g., red + versus green - ).

Question 38

Perceptual learning initially appears to contradict the assumptions of many conditioning theories because these theories predict that

A) only humans have the cognitive capacity to engage in perceptual learning.
B) blocking should occur, thereby retarding discrimination learning.
C) relational learning should occur, thus facilitating discrimination among stimuli with common features.
D) latent inhibition should occur, thereby retarding learning.

Question 39

Reduced conditioning due to latent inhibition is

A) a threat to observing perceptual learning.
B) not a threat to observing perceptual learning because the difference between the responses to two stimuli is being studied, not the absolute levels of conditioning.
C) ultimately unrelated to perceptual learning.
D) what develops between the unique elements of different stimuli, accounting for aspects of perceptual learning.

Question 40

Which mechanism has not been proposed as an explanation for perceptual learning?

A) The common elements of two stimuli develop more latent inhibition than the unique elements, and thus less generalization and confusion occur between the two stimuli.
B) The common element will produce retrieval-generated priming of one of the unique elements that will not occur, and thus the unique elements will become inhibitory signals for each other.
C) Complex stimuli have such a large number of features that only a fraction are sampled at any one time. In pre-exposure, more and more features are linked to one another, thereby producing pattern completion when just a subset of features is presented.
D) The elements of the stimuli contribute to latent learning that is not manifest in behavior due to a lack of motivation. Perceptual learning is another case of the learning performance distinction: When no incentive is present, a behavior is less likely to occur.

Question 41

Which term does not belong with the others?

A) Acquired equivalence
B) Perceptual learning
C) Conditional discrimination
D) Mediated generalization

Question 42

Acquired equivalence will most likely take place when two stimuli

A) are associated with different but equally appealing stimuli (e.g., cookies, chocolate milk).
B) are in the same stimulus dimension (e.g., both are tones) and are associated with different stimuli.
C) are associated with the same stimulus (e.g., light  shock, tone  shock).
D) are used as the S^D and S^Δ in one discrimination (e.g., red +, green -), and then reversed in the next discrimination (red -, green +).

Question 43

The expression "guilt by association" implies the existence of

A) conditional discriminations.
B) acquired distinctiveness.
C) mediated generalization.
D) generalization gradients.

Question 44

In a matching-to-sample task, subjects must

A) learn a conditional discrimination, select among the comparison stimuli, and respond to the one that matches the immediately preceding sample.
B) learn and complete a specific schedule requirement in the presence of a specific cue (i.e., the subject's behavior must match what is predicted by the stimulus sample).
C) select among novel comparison stimuli (red, purple, green) to find a stimulus that most closely matches the immediately preceding sample (orange).
D) use perceptual learning to determine which comparison stimulus to select after being presented with a sample.

Question 45

A conditional discrimination is so named because

A) reinforcement is required for performance to occur.
B) the correct stimulus choice on any trial depends on which stimulus preceded it.
C) correct responding depends on identical testing conditions for every training session.
D) most discrimination learning requires differential conditioning of the training stimuli.

Question 46

A geon is

A) the simplest component of a visual stimulus that can be perceived easily from any perspective.
B) the smallest difference between any two stimuli that can be perceived by a particular species.
C) the most direct pathway in a neural network between a prime and a target stimulus.
D) the simplest feature of a visual stimulus, such as an edge or a line.

Question 47

Which statement about "search images" is false?

A) They are voluntary, intentional behaviors.
B) They do not require mental effort, and they operate automatically.
C) They are learned or acquired through experience.
D) They are strategies for increasing predator success.

Question 48

When humans and birds are tested on their ability to detect embedded stimuli,

A) birds do better when the unique region differs by a single feature, whereas humans can solve the problem as easily when one or multiple features are present.
B) birds are more likely to find the unique region when the entropy value of the display is low, whereas entropy value does not affect human detection.
C) birds compare each area with other areas to find the embedded stimulus, whereas humans use a more general strategy of textural roughness.
D) birds and humans perform similarly; both are most successful at finding the embedded region when it contains a unique feature.

Question 49

Research on attentional priming in pigeons has found that

A) subjects are more successful with visual search tasks when the target occurs randomly and infrequently.
B) subjects are distracted by primes and perform more accurately and quickly when the prime is omitted.
C) extensive practice on visual search tasks eliminates priming effects.
D) reducing the number and frequency of distractors in the background decreases accuracy.

Question 50

To test attention, learning, and memory in pigeons, researchers used the following protocol. Phase 1: Subjects are shown a set of bars (///) on a center key-light for a specified period of time. Phase 2: The key-light goes off for another period of time. Phase 3: Two key-lights on either side of the center key-light are illuminated with two different sets of bars (\\\ versus ///). The subject's task is to respond to whichever stimulus it has seen previously. This task is referred to as a _______ test.

A) divided attention
B) delayed matching-to-sample
C) matching-to-sample
D) priming

Question 51

To test attention, learning, and memory in pigeons, researchers use the following protocol. Subjects are trained with compound stimuli (/// on a red key, + on a green key, § on a blue key, and ≡ on an orange key); the /// red and § blue keys are rewarded, and the + green and ≡ orange keys are not. In the second phase, subjects' reaction times are tested to brief presentations of (1) first the symbol and then the colored key, or (2) no symbol and just the colored key. The subjects' task is to respond to the rewarded key colors and not respond to nonrewarded key colors. Researchers measure reaction times and response error rates to determine if the symbol cue helped subjects respond more quickly and accurately. This task is referred to as a _______ task.

A) divided attention
B) delayed matching-to-sample
C) matching-to-sample
D) priming

Question 52

Which statement about factors that affect working memory is false?

A) Performance on DMTS improves as the amount of practice on the task increases.
B) Performance improves as the response requirement to turn off the sample increases.
C) Interference increases as the intertrial interval is increased.
D) Experiencing different samples on successive trials-as opposed to a run of samples that are the same-interferes more with performance.

Question 53

A radial maze is used by researchers to study

A) choice behavior.
B) incentive contrast.
C) concept learning.
D) working memory.

Question 54

Which statement about working memory is false?

A) Rats and pigeons use retrospective coding to remember early choices and prospective coding to remember later choices.
B) Retrospective coding decreases task difficulty as the number of places visited increases; prospective coding increases task difficulty as the number of places yet-to-visit increases.
C) When subjects are interrupted or prevented from continuing their selection response, the greatest disruption of performance occurs on choices in the middle, rather than on early or later choices.
D) Working memory performance is disrupted much more than reference memory performance when the hippocampus is damaged.

Question 55

Information relating to _______ is stored in episodic memory.

A) individual preferences
B) how many times an event happened
C) what an event was, along with where and when it occurred
D) why an event occurred and what it signifies to the animal

Question 56

A rat remembers to lift a lever to obtain food, just as it has been trained. This behavior is a function of _______ memory.

A) semantic
B) declarative
C) episodic
D) procedural

Question 57

Environmental events that regulate biological clocks are called

A) free-running rhythms.
B) zeitgebers.
C) gestalt stimuli.
D) beacons.

Question 58

Research on time cognition has found that

A) nonhuman animals are less sensitive to time cues than humans are.
B) time perception in nonhuman animals is based on their biological clocks, whereas humans use both biological and environmental time cues.
C) biological clocks can systematically regulate behavior whether or not environmental cues change.
D) because of the varying probability of success in foraging, animals are readily able to use time cues shorter than a day or longer than a day to predict meal availability.

Question 59

Regardless of the length of the trip, 80% of all "Are we there yet?" questions come in the last 20% of the trip. This phenomenon reflects

A) a temporal bisection.
B) the similarity between generalization gradients produced by time cues and other types of generalization gradients.
C) the scalar properties of time.
D) the fact that short time intervals are regulated by pacemakers and longer time intervals are regulated by biological clocks.

Question 60

Trips to grandma's house always take 90 minutes. At the start of the trip, children ask in a complaining tone, "How long 'til we are there?" Near the end of the trip they ask "Are we there yet?" According to research using bisection tasks,

A) at about 45 minutes into the trip the children are just as likely to ask either question.
B) if the parent turns on the radio at the halfway mark, the children will continue asking the first question.
C) the children use the number of times they ask the question to keep track of time.
D) the children use the type of question they are asking to keep track of time.

Question 61

On long car trips, children typically occupy themselves by playing games, fighting, singing, and fidgeting. Why might these behaviors be occurring?

A) According to the Gibbon and Church model, they are pacemaker activities.
B) They are cues that activate a hypothetical switch that causes the pulses to collect in a working memory accumulator.
C) According to a behavioral theory of timing, they may be associated with other events that occur at the same time, such as passing a particular town or landmark.
D) According to the multiple-time scale model, they interfere with time perception.

Question 62

One model explaining animals' sensitivity to time argues that animals engage in a fixed sequence of actions during any time interval, and that they use their memory of whichever action was taking place at the time of reinforcement to pattern their responding. This perspective is referred to as the

A) multiple time scale model.
B) multiple oscillator model.
C) information processing model of timing.
D) behavioral theory of timing.

Question 63

Research using the peak procedure has demonstrated that

A) responding peaks away from the S‒ or S^Δ
B) responding peaks at the start of a visual stimulus that signals food, and declines steadily thereafter.
C) responding peaks near the end of a stimulus when food has not occurred at the expected time.
D) responding peaks near the time that a reinforcer is expected.

Question 64

Which term does not belong with the others?

A) Circadian rhythm
B) Peak procedure
C) Temporal bisection
D) Superposition

Question 65

The capacity of animals to use an internal sense of direction and distance to move intentionally and efficiently from one location to another is referred to as

A) dead reckoning.
B) beaconing.
C) landmarking.
D) scaling.

Question 66

What is the difference between a beacon and a landmark.

A) Landmarks are close to the goal, while beacons can be located anywhere.
B) A beacon is a cue that is close to the goal, while a landmark can be anywhere in relation to the goal.
C) Landmarks only provide information about direction, while beacons provide direction and distance information.
D) Beacons are used in relation to each other while landmarks are simply approached in a sequence.

Question 67

The idea that animals have a geometric module dedicated to encoding the shape of the environment was generated by

A) the theory of microchoices.
B) the observation that animals approach similarly shaped walls, regardless of direction.
C) the theory of cognitive maps.
D) the observation that animals need at least two landmarks to establish direction to a goal.

Question 68

Blocking research on spatial learning has shown that

A) beacons do not readily block landmarks.
B) beacons readily block geometric cues.
C) geometric cues are not readily blocked by beacons or landmarks.
D) beacons, landmarks, and geometric cues are equally effective in blocking stimuli.

Question 69

Geometric cues are thought to be

A) special, in that organisms are prepared to learn about them, and they are resistant to blocking.
B) especially salient, though normal learning principles still seem to apply to them.
C) no more effective than standard landmarks.
D) a beacon formed by landmarks.

Question 70

In searching for food, a rat seems to be guided by

A) a map of where it has been.
B) memory for a list of places where it has traveled according to the microchoices made along the way.
C) either a memory for a list of places where it has been or a map, depending on the demands of the task.
D) place cells in the hippocampus.

Question 71

Imagine a maze in which the floor of each arm is a different texture, but the walls are all perfectly white. After rats have learned to navigate the maze, the walls are removed. One rat walks straight to the goal. The other rat follows the cues provided by the floor textures to reach the goal. The first rat is using the _______ system, while the second is using the ________ system.

A) operant; S-R
B) locale; taxon
C) taxon; Locale
D) geometry module; dead reckoning

Question 72

During testing, a monkey is uncertain of the correct answer and chooses not to participate in this test of its knowledge at which it might fail. The monkey is demonstrating

A) stimulus control.
B) metacognition.
C) time perception.
D) matching to sample.

Question 73

In what ways can stimulus control affect predators and prey?

Question 74

Explain what is meant by a polymorphous category, and describe the ability of pigeons to learn this type of category.

Question 75

Explain how a transfer test is conducted and why it is used to test for concept learning.

Question 76

What is a generalization gradient and how does it differ from a gradient after discrimination training?

Question 77

You have been captured by aliens for research and are the subject of a category learning experiment with stimuli (@, #, $, %) matched to categories such as @# = Farnut, $# = wahool, $% = karrd, and @% = taroom. You successfully learn all the categories. To avoid further experimentation, you decide to speak out and educate your abductors on theories of categorization. Evaluate which theories can, and cannot, explain your performance.

Question 78

"Group think" is a social-psychology phenomenon whereby people, for example, enter a discussion sharing a common opinion on a topic and come out of that discussion with an even more extreme view. Consider opinions as stimuli that people respond to and that have consequences, how could "group think" be explained in terms of generalization gradients?

Question 79

Radiologists must accurately discriminate malignant cancer from nonmalignant cancer cells in X-rays. You are asked to design a training program that will give the radiologists feedback on their categorization of hundreds of X-rays. How would you incorporate what you know about perceptual learning into your program so that the radiologists quickly learn to accurately discriminate the cancers? Discuss the mechanisms that will make your program successful.

Question 80

Eric is at his first high-school dance. He asks Sydney, who was wearing pale yellow, to dance with him, but she says no. Next he asks Olga, who also is wearing yellow, to dance, but she politely refuses. Undeterred, he then approaches Susan, who is wearing brown, and she accepts. Later in the evening, Eric feels like dancing again. He sees two women standing by themselves, one who is wearing brown and one who is wearing black. Which woman is he likely to ask to dance? Justify your answer.