Deck 3: The Nuts and Bolts of Classical Conditioning

Question 1

Which statement regarding the mechanisms of conditioning and conditioning studies is false?

A) Conditioning studies are designed to be representative of general associative learning processes.
B) Conditioning studies use somewhat complex systems to discover specific associative learning processes.
C) Learning psychologists assume that classical and instrumental learning reflect similar learning processes.
D) Learning researchers have greater control over responding in classical studies than in instrumental studies.

Answer 1

B

Question 2

The unconditional stimulus is typically

A) initially neutral, but later significant.
B) biologically significant to the organism.
C) the basis of generalization, which is unlearned.
D) the stimulus that predicts the conditional stimulus.

Answer 2

B

Question 3

Which object is likely to be an unconditional stimulus in humans?

A) A cube of sugar
B) A fly
C) A shiny object
D) A remote control

Answer 3

A

Question 4

Which of the following is likely to be a conditional stimulus in humans?

A) The meaning of your name
B) The meaning of the word "fire"
C) A small earthquake
D) A logo

Question 5

The conditional stimulus is an event that

A) naturally elicits a reliable and measurable response.
B) eventually elicits a reliable and measurable response after enough experience with it.
C) might elicit its own response but with enough pairings with other stimuli can elicit other responses as well.
D) will elicit a reliable and measurable response, but only if it has first been preexposed to the subject.

Question 6

Refer to the scenario below to answer the questions that follow.
While you are stopped at a traffic light and listening to a new song on the radio, you are rear-ended by the driver behind you. You suffer mild whiplash and minor bruising, and you are terribly frightened by the accident. Weeks later, you still get anxious whenever you hear the song that was on the radio at the time of the accident.
-From a classical conditioning perspective, the car that hit you would be the

A) unconditional stimulus.
B) unconditional response.
C) conditional stimulus.
D) conditional response.

Question 7

Refer to the scenario below to answer the questions that follow.
While you are stopped at a traffic light and listening to a new song on the radio, you are rear-ended by the driver behind you. You suffer mild whiplash and minor bruising, and you are terribly frightened by the accident. Weeks later, you still get anxious whenever you hear the song that was on the radio at the time of the accident.
-The pain and fear you experienced from the collision would be the

A) unconditional stimulus.
B) unconditional response.
C) conditional stimulus.
D) conditional response.

Question 8

Refer to the scenario below to answer the questions that follow.
While you are stopped at a traffic light and listening to a new song on the radio, you are rear-ended by the driver behind you. You suffer mild whiplash and minor bruising, and you are terribly frightened by the accident. Weeks later, you still get anxious whenever you hear the song that was on the radio at the time of the accident.
-The song playing on the radio at the time of the accident would be the

A) unconditional stimulus.
B) unconditional response.
C) conditional stimulus.
D) conditional response.

Question 9

Refer to the scenario below to answer the questions that follow.
While you are stopped at a traffic light and listening to a new song on the radio, you are rear-ended by the driver behind you. You suffer mild whiplash and minor bruising, and you are terribly frightened by the accident. Weeks later, you still get anxious whenever you hear the song that was on the radio at the time of the accident.
-The fear you now experience whenever you hear the song that was playing at the time of the accident would be the

A) unconditional stimulus.
B) unconditional response.
C) conditional stimulus.
D) conditional response.

Question 10

Refer to the scenario below to answer the questions that follow.
While you are stopped at a traffic light and listening to a new song on the radio, you are rear-ended by the driver behind you. You suffer mild whiplash and minor bruising, and you are terribly frightened by the accident. Weeks later, you still get anxious whenever you hear the song that was on the radio at the time of the accident.
-You are in an elevator, and an instrument-only version of the song you heard on the radio during the car accident is playing while you ride to the tenth floor. Although you are not afraid of small spaces, heights, or elevators, you become increasingly anxious during the elevator ride. As another song begins to play you relax and realize that your anxiety in the elevator was likely a case of CS

A) spontaneous recovery.
B) acquisition.
C) generalization.
D) habituation.

Question 11

Refer to the scenario below to answer the questions that follow.
While you are stopped at a traffic light and listening to a new song on the radio, you are rear-ended by the driver behind you. You suffer mild whiplash and minor bruising, and you are terribly frightened by the accident. Weeks later, you still get anxious whenever you hear the song that was on the radio at the time of the accident.
-Based on one explanation of what is learned in classical conditioning studies, an association would be formed between the fear generated by being in an accident and the song that was playing on the radio at the time of the accident. If such an association formed, it would represent an example of _______ learning.

A) S-R
B) S-S
C) R-S
D) R-R

Question 12

Refer to the following description of a dog training procedure to answer the questions that follow.
Clicker training, which involves pairing a metallic clicking sound with a food treat, is used in training animals. Initially, the click is meaningless, but as the number of click-food treat pairings increases, the animal (e.g., a dog) appears to develop an expectation that a click signals a food treat. Thus the dog approaches, looks at the handler, and appears excited (e.g., wagging tail, drooling, etc.).
-One explanation of what is learned in classical conditioning studies is that the subject forms an association between the clicker and excitement, drooling, and attention. Thus the training illustrates the phenomenon of _______ learning.

A) R-S
B) R-R
C) S-R
D) S-S

Question 13

Refer to the following description of a dog training procedure to answer the questions that follow.
Clicker training, which involves pairing a metallic clicking sound with a food treat, is used in training animals. Initially, the click is meaningless, but as the number of click-food treat pairings increases, the animal (e.g., a dog) appears to develop an expectation that a click signals a food treat. Thus the dog approaches, looks at the handler, and appears excited (e.g., wagging tail, drooling, etc.).
-One explanation of what is learned in classical conditioning studies is that the subject forms an association between the clicker and the food treat. Thus the training illustrates the phenomenon of _______ learning.

A) R-S
B) R-R
C) S-R
D) S-S

Question 14

Refer to the following description of a dog training procedure to answer the questions that follow.
Clicker training, which involves pairing a metallic clicking sound with a food treat, is used in training animals. Initially, the click is meaningless, but as the number of click-food treat pairings increases, the animal (e.g., a dog) appears to develop an expectation that a click signals a food treat. Thus the dog approaches, looks at the handler, and appears excited (e.g., wagging tail, drooling, etc.).
-If the animal later encounters the food treat somewhere else, and it makes the animal sick, how will the animal respond to the click afterward?

A) It will salivate, demonstrating S-S learning.
B) It will withdraw from the clicker, demonstrating S-R learning.
C) It will approach, demonstrating S-R learning.
D) It will withdraw from the clicker, demonstrating S-S learning.

Question 15

Sensory preconditioning

A) is a complex example of sign learning.
B) is procedurally the same as second-order conditioning.
C) is a way that a response to a stimulus could appear to arise spontaneously.
D) involves the unique pairing of two USs before any CS is involved.

Question 16

Generalization is a process by which subjects respond

A) in a similar fashion to similar stimuli.
B) differently to stimuli that differ.
C) initially, but then quickly stop responding.
D) initially with a standard response, and then with an increasingly vigorous response.

Question 17

Which term does not belong with the others?

A) Spontaneous recovery
B) Generalization
C) Acquisition
D) Extinction

Question 18

At the start of classical conditioning, the conditional stimulus typically elicits

A) a reliable and measurable response.
B) an orienting response.
C) no response of any type.
D) an exaggerated response that with training becomes a smaller version of the UR.

Question 19

Stimulus substitution refers to the theory by which classical conditioning results in a

A) learned response that looks like the reflex response.
B) learned response that is triggered by the US.
C) neutral stimulus that functions like a US.
D) change in the meaning of a non-neutral stimulus

Question 20

Although current research indicates that a variety of associations can be formed in classical conditioning procedures, the most usual association is an _______ association.

A) S-R
B) R-S
C) S-S
D) R-R

Question 21

For one week, a 15-second cartoon keeps appearing on TV showing an animated purple frog hopping and dancing around to some unfamiliar zyedeco music. The frog and music capture your attention, but you cannot figure out why the segment is being shown. The next week, you see a new commercial showing people eating and partying at a New Orleans‒style restaurant with waitstaff wearing the same purple frog on their shirts. A voice-over gives the name of the new restaurant-The Purple Frog-and describes specialties on the menu. You decide to try the new restaurant for yourself. Later that week, you are in the car when the zyedeco music from the first week's cartoon plays on the radio. You immediately turn to your friend and say "Hey, that's an ad for the Purple Frog Restaurant, let's go there for lunch." Although the zyedeco music was not actually played either in the commercial or at the restaurant itself, you assume that you are hearing a commercial for the restaurant because of the classical conditioning process of

A) stimulus generalization.
B) higher-order conditioning.
C) sensory preconditioning.
D) conditioned emotional responding.

Question 22

Cents-off manufacturers' coupons for brand-name products (e.g., ice cream) regularly appear in the newspaper. If you use the coupon to purchase the particular brand or flavor of ice cream, eat the ice cream, and find it exceptionally tasty, you will develop a preference for that brand and flavor. In the future, when you see cents-off coupons for that brand or flavor of ice cream, you remember the delicious taste, despite the fact that the eating of the ice cream has never been paired with the cents-off coupon. Your response is due to the classical conditioning process of

A) sensory preconditioning.
B) stimulus generalization.
C) second-order conditioning.
D) conditioned emotional responding.

Question 23

Which of the following classical conditioning phenomena is thought of as illustrating a case of purely S-S learning because the CS that elicits a response is never paired with an O?

A) Stimulus generalization
B) Second-order conditioning
C) Sensory preconditioning
D) Conditioned emotional responding

Question 24

Businesses typically have distinct logos that serve as their signature or trademark for the kind and quality of product or service they deliver. While driving on the interstate, you often see large blue road signs displaying groupings of logos for specific vendors of gasoline, lodging, and food. Your reaction to these signs (e.g., relief, disappointment, fatigue, hunger, etc.) illustrates the classical conditioning phenomenon of

A) stimulus generalization.
B) higher order conditioning.
C) sensory preconditioning.
D) conditioned emotional responding.

Question 25

A researcher studying rats uses a tone to signal that food is available in the hopper. After a number of tone‒food pairings, the researcher pairs an illuminated light with just the tone. The rat paws, licks, and chews on the illuminated light when the tone is sounded, even though no food is provided in this training stage. This conditioning procedure illustrates the phenomenon of

A) sensory preconditioning.
B) conditioned emotional responding.
C) stimulus generalization.
D) higher order conditioning.

Question 26

Using cats, a researcher presents a tone to signal that foot shock will occur. After a number of tone‒foot shock pairings, the researcher pairs a flashing light with just the tone. To test if higher order conditioning has occurred, the researcher would present only the _______ and expect it to produce fear and a withdrawal response.

A) tone
B) flashing light
C) flashing light‒tone combination
D) flashing light‒foot shock combination

Question 27

Which of the following features of standard eyeblink conditioning in rabbits does not contribute to the general appeal of this conditioning preparation to researchers?

A) The eyeblink is a much simpler type of response than the one found in most other conditioning preparations.
B) Researchers have extensive knowledge regarding the variables that affect eyeblink in rabbits.
C) Eyeblink can be used to study the neural basis of conditioning and learning.
D) Researchers can use pleasant or aversive USs to elicit the eyeblink.

Question 28

In the standard eyeblink conditioning preparation in rabbits, the eyeblink is the

A) US.
B) UR.
C) CR.
D) UR and the CR.

Question 29

The typical conditioned emotional response preparation involves a CS that signals

A) a mate.
B) food.
C) shock.
D) a rival.

Question 30

The suppression ratio used in conditioned suppression preparations involves a comparison between the rate of responding during the _______ and the total rate of responding _______.

A) CS; during the CS and an equal time period just prior to the CS
B) CS; during the CS and US
C) CS; during the US
D) CS; when the CS is absent

Question 31

A rat presses a lever 9 times before a CS comes on. During the CS the rat freezes somewhat and only presses 1 time. What is the resulting suppression ratio?

A) 0.11
B) 0.1
C) 0.9
D) More information is needed to calculate the suppression ratio.

Question 32

Which statement about conditioned suppression is false?

A) It has significant relevance for most anxiety therapies.
B) Conditioned emotions produce motivational effects.
C) Conditioning proceeds very slowly, thereby reducing measurement problems.
D) It was used to discover and study many of the most important conditioning phenomena.

Question 33

In pigeon autoshaping, pigeons direct their behavior toward the _______, while in appetitive conditioning with rats, rats direct their behavior toward the _______.

A) US; CS
B) CS; goal
C) CS; CS
D) disc; lever

Question 34

Eric is in a smoking study at a pharmacology lab. Every time the handle on the machine in front of him wiggles, a cigarette is delivered. After a few parings, he begins to reach out to wiggle the handle. Which statement is true?

A) Eric has been instrumentally conditioned.
B) Eric has been autoshaped.
C) Eric knows that wiggling the handle causes cigarettes to be delivered.
D) Eric is in withdrawal.

Question 35

Which statement about classical conditioning preparations is true?

A) Some of the most important conditioning phenomena were discovered and investigated using eyeblink conditioning.
B) When a stimulus used in operant conditioning is similar to the sign stimulus, rapid operant conditioning may be mistaken for what is actually sign tracking.
C) Conditioned suppression is one of the simplest types of responses and has been used to identify the neurological basis of learning.
D) Taste aversion learning only occurs in humans shortly after they've eaten something that makes them ill and they can't rule out other reasons for becoming ill.

Question 36

At her family's annual reunion, Traci eats fried chicken, potato salad, baked beans, and, for the first time, pickled pigs' feet. In the middle of the night she awakens with a stomach ache, which she attributes to the pickled pigs' feet. She refuses to try that food again. Traci's development of a taste aversion to pickled pigs' feet is based on a real-life version of the _______ conditioning procedure.

A) trace
B) backward
C) delay
D) simultaneous

Question 37

You are talking on your cell phone while driving your younger sister to soccer practice. Because you are distracted, you do not notice that the driver in front of you is slowing down to make a right turn. You hit the car in front of you just as your younger sister screams "Look out!" Despite the fact that your sister's scream did not prevent the collision, you react quickly the next time someone yells "Look out!" What kind of conditioning has occurred here?

A) Trace
B) Backward
C) Delay
D) Simultaneous

Question 38

In general, the most effective procedure for producing classical conditioning is the _______ conditioning procedure.

A) trace
B) backward
C) delay
D) simultaneous

Question 39

Which of the following does not facilitate the formation of a classically conditioned association?

A) Novel CS or US
B) Intense CS or US
C) Relatively short interval between the CS and US
D) Massed-trials training procedure

Question 40

Preexposing a CS _______ to the CS.

A) has no effect on the subject's tendency to pay attention
B) increases the subject's tendency to pay attention
C) decreases the subject's tendency to pay attention
D) creates a strong inhibitory response

Question 41

A researcher has divided his research subjects into two groups. For one group, the CS is 10 seconds long and signals a brief US at the end of the procedure. The time between trials is 30 seconds. In another group, the CS is 2 seconds long with a brief US at its end, and the time between trials is 6 seconds. You expect the

A) second group to condition more rapidly because the intervals between trials are shorter.
B) first group to condition more rapidly because the intervals between trials are longer.
C) two groups to condition at more or less the same pace.
D) second group to condition more rapidly because it is exposed to a longer interstimulus interval.

Question 42

Preexposure of a CS or US typically

A) slows classical conditioning.
B) produces inhibition.
C) produces excitation.
D) has no effect on conditioning.

Question 43

A situation in which the CS elicits a response that looks like the response that is supposed to be conditioned is referred to as

A) pseudoconditioning.
B) sensitization.
C) latent excitation.
D) latent inhibition.

Question 44

The smell of cooked cabbage makes Sydney a little nauseous. One night she gets violently ill after an evening of eating fast food. The next day the smell of cooked cabbage makes her vomit. What happened?

A) She developed a taste aversion to cooked cabbage.
B) She was pseudoconditioned.
C) The bout of illness sensitized her to the cabbage.
D) She experienced latent inhibition

Question 45

CS-only and US-only control groups are often run as part of a classical conditioning experiment to demonstrate

A) the effects of spaced versus massed trial training procedures.
B) the effects of CS or US preexposure.
C) the difference between classical conditioning, pseudoconditioning, and sensitization.
D) latent inhibition.

Question 46

Conditioned inhibition is the opposite of

A) conditioned excitation.
B) pseudoconditioning.
C) latent inhibition.
D) sensitization.

Question 47

In the summation test for conditioned inhibition, the researcher pairs a presumed conditioned inhibitor with _______ and then measures the amount of _______.

A) a known conditioned inhibitor; inhibition
B) a novel stimulus; response change
C) a known conditioned excitor; response change
D) an operant response; suppression

Question 48

When researchers pair two conditioned excitors or two conditioned inhibitors, they typically observe

A) double the amount of excitation or inhibition, respectively.
B) half the amount of excitation or inhibition, respectively.
C) a somewhat greater amount of excitation or inhibition than either stimulus produces individually.
D) an exponential increase in excitation or inhibition, due to the compound's novelty.

Question 49

Your friend is showing you an advertisement for "Pizza and Pasta World" just as your fitness coach from the gym approaches you on the street. You suddenly feel somewhat upset. Why?

A) You feel guilty.
B) Your coach might be a conditioned inhibitor for poor health practices.
C) You normally release endorphins around your coach.
D) You are associating your friend with your coach.

Question 50

In the retardation-of-acquisition test for inhibition, the researcher first

A) preexposes the stimulus and then attempts to turn it into a conditioned inhibitor.
B) extinguishes a conditioned excitor and then attempts to turn it into a conditioned inhibitor.
C) extinguishes a conditioned inhibitor and then presents it in compound with a conditioned excitor.
D) creates a conditioned inhibitor and then attempts to turn it into a conditioned excitor.

Question 51

When a bidirectional response test for conditioned inhibition is performed, the researcher

A) expects the inhibitor to reduce responding and the excitor to increase it.
B) expects extinction to reduce inhibition and paradoxically increase excitation.
C) creates a conditioned inhibitor and then attempts to turn it into a conditioned excitor.
D) expects excitors and inhibitors to have the opposite effect on the response.

Question 52

Which of the following tests is not used to test for conditioned inhibition?

A) Retardation-of-acquisition
B) Bidirectional response
C) Summation
D) Preexposure

Question 53

When researchers present one stimulus with a US and a second stimulus without a US, the inhibitory conditioning procedure is referred to as _______ training.

A) differential inhibition
B) conditioned inhibition
C) backward
D) explicitly unpaired

Question 54

Battery chargers for tools, cell phones, and other electronic devices typically show one signal when charging (e.g., flashing icon, message, red light) and a different signal when charging is complete (e.g., static icon, message, green light). This system is an application of

A) differential inhibition.
B) conditioned inhibition.
C) backward inhibition.
D) explicitly unpaired.

Question 55

An animal trainer teaching a dog a trick that requires it to disobey a specific verbal command (inhibit the tendency to respond) first teaches the dog to obey the command. Then he teaches the dog to disobey the command when he cocks his head to the right. The trainer is applying _______ inhibition.

A) differential
B) conditioned
C) backward
D) explicitly unpaired

Question 56

Because trains are large, fast, and difficult to stop, pedestrian and automobile warning signals must be triggered when the train is still quite a distance from the railroad crossing. At railroad crossings that have lights and bells but no crossing gates, drivers often ignore the warnings and cross the tracks because they get frustrated waiting for the train to pass. This problem is caused by

A) differential inhibition.
B) conditioned inhibition.
C) explicitly unpaired inhibition
D) inhibition-of-delay.

Question 57

Imagine your social network is very small, and you only receive calls from your significant other when she is out of town. When she is away, she calls you several times a day. One afternoon, when she is home, you are suddenly very startled by the phone ringing. Why?

A) Differential inhibition made the significant other inhibitory for a ringing phone.
B) Conditioned inhibition made the significant other inhibitory for a ringing phone.
C) A negative correlation made the significant other inhibitory for a ringing phone.
D) Inhibition-of-delay made the significant other inhibitory for a ringing phone.

Question 58

Which of the following two conditioning procedures do not produce true inhibition?

A) CS preexposure and extinction
B) Backward conditioning and habituation
C) Long-delay conditioning and adaptation
D) Bidirectional conditioning and pseudoconditioning

Question 59

Which of the following statements about CS preexposure and extinction is true?

A) CS preexposure fails the retardation-of-acquisition test but passes the suppression test.
B) CS preexposure passes the retardation-of-acquisition test but fails the suppression test.
C) Extinction fails the retardation-of-acquisition test but passes the suppression test.
D) Extinction passes both the retardation-of-acquisition and suppression tests.

Question 60

In a positive contingency the CS predicts _______, whereas in a negative contingency the CS predicts _______.

A) a pleasant US; an aversive US
B) a pleasant US; no US
C) a pleasant or aversive US; no US
D) a pleasant or aversive US; nothing

Question 61

The blocking phenomenon is said to occur when

A) a preexposed stimulus develops into a strong excitatory CS during training.
B) a conditioned inhibitor is easily converted into a strong excitatory CS during training.
C) nothing is learned about a novel stimulus despite compound training with an established excitatory CS.
D) pairing a novel stimulus with an established excitatory CS prevents learning anything about the compound.

Question 62

Kamin's interpretation of the blocking phenomenon is that it results from

A) stimulus preexposure effects.
B) conditioned inhibition.
C) a failure to predict anything new.
D) confusion when trying to convert an excitor or inhibitor to mean the opposite of what it was originally.

Question 63

A group of rats receives 10 CS-Shock pairings, along with 5 other shocks at random intervals. A second group only receives the 10 CS-Shock pairings. Which group will show the strongest CR to the CS?

A) The first group, because it has experienced more shocks, further potentiating the responding to the CS
B) The groups will respond more or less the same, as the number of CS-US pairings are the same
C) The second group, showing that the contingency matters
D) The first group, because the CS will block learning about the US when it occurs randomly

Question 64

On some visits to a medical clinic, a person receiving treatment for cancer receives painful and nausea-inducing IV therapy under the supervision of a nurse in a treatment room. On other visits the person meets with a physician in the treatment room to discuss test results, track progress, and deal with any problems. Based on Wagner's relative validity studies, one would predict that the stimulus that would elicit the strongest learned pain-aversion response would be the

A) nurse.
B) doctor.
C) treatment room.
D) doctor and nurse in the treatment room together.

Question 65

Experiments on contingency showed that more than pairings are necessary for conditioning. They also made us think about

A) the function of blocking.
B) excitation and inhibition as existing on a continuum.
C) an animal's ability to perform computations.
D) relative validity.

Question 66

"Most objects consist of a number of features." Explain how this characteristic of objects led to the general characteristics of conditioning experiments.

Question 67

Many cats and dogs come running into the kitchen whenever they hear the sound of the can opener. Explain how this behavior could have arisen, using your understanding of classical conditioning.

Question 68

The first time Karen opened the closet door in her new apartment, she was frightened by a clown doll that was left by the previous tenants. Now she refuses to use the closet, and the only thing she will say about it is "I don't like that closet." How would you determine whether she has associated the closet with the doll (S-S) or with the fear response (S-R)?

Question 69

Describe two ways in which a stimulus can come to elicit fear without ever being paired with a fear-inducing US.

Question 70

Describe two of the classical conditioning preparations discussed in the text (i.e., eyeblink, fear conditioning in the rat, autoshaping, appetitive conditioning in the rat, taste aversion), noting the types of stimuli and behavior involved as well as an advantage of the procedure.

Question 71

Diagram and label the four ways CSs and USs can be paired, and indicate their relative effectiveness in producing classical conditioning.

Question 72

You want to study the effects of distractors on conditioned responding, and you want to establish a conditioned response as quickly as possible. What features must be part of the study in order to make the conditioning occur as rapidly as possible?

Question 73

What is the CS "preexposure effect," and why should that term be preferred over the term "latent inhibition"?

Question 74

How can an extinguished CS have inhibition if it does not pass a summation test?

Question 75

Why is conditioned inhibition more difficult to demonstrate than conditioned excitation, and what must be done to observe it in most cases?

Question 76

Why is the bidirectional response test the ideal test for demonstrating conditioned inhibition?

Question 77

You ask a new acquaintance out on a date. In your fervor to make a good impression, you discuss with her the places she most enjoys, and take her to her favorite bar for the date. You both have fun on the date, but she isn't very excited about seeing you again. From a conditioning perspective, what might have gone wrong?

Question 78

A rival bowling team always beats your team. Bob, a large, exuberant, somewhat loud fellow, is on the rival team. Bob bowls very well, but not any better than the other members of his team, who are relatively quiet. One night Bob is absent, and you feel certain that your team will now win. Based on what you know about conditioning, why might you feel that way?

Question 79

Eric and his girlfriend Sydney are equally good bowlers. Eric's team never wins without him. When Sydney begins to play with Eric on his team, what will she need to do to get equal credit for their team's victories?

Question 80

Eric and Cody bowl together on one team, and Travis and Sean bowl together on another. Each team wins 50% of their games. When Cody's team wins, it is always when Eric is playing. Sean's team, however, is as likely to win as it is to lose when Travis plays. Is Cody or Sean is going to appear to be the better bowler? How do you know?