Deck 1: Perspectives on Deviance

Question 1

Discuss the difficulty in coming up with a definition of deviance.

Answer 1

The difficulty in coming up with a definition of deviance lies in the fact that what is considered deviant behavior can vary greatly depending on cultural, societal, and historical contexts. Deviance is not an inherent quality of an action or behavior, but rather a social construct that is defined and enforced by the norms and values of a particular group or society.

What is considered deviant in one culture or society may be completely acceptable in another. For example, behaviors such as drinking alcohol, gambling, or engaging in premarital sex may be considered deviant in some cultures, while in others they are widely accepted.

Furthermore, the definition of deviance can change over time within a society. What was once considered deviant behavior may become normalized as societal attitudes and values shift. For example, attitudes towards homosexuality have evolved over time, with behavior that was once considered deviant now being widely accepted in many societies.

Additionally, the labeling of certain behaviors as deviant can be influenced by power dynamics and social inequalities. Those in positions of power often have the ability to define what is considered deviant and to enforce sanctions against those who engage in such behavior. This can lead to the stigmatization and marginalization of certain groups within society.

In conclusion, the difficulty in defining deviance stems from its subjective and socially constructed nature. It is important to recognize that what is considered deviant is not fixed or universal, but rather shaped by the norms, values, and power dynamics of a particular society.

Question 2

What are Beccaria's beliefs on crime and humanity and why did those beliefs develop along those lines? How did the Neoclassicists refine Beccaria's philosophy?

Answer 2

Cesare Beccaria, an Italian philosopher and criminologist, believed that crime was a result of the individual's rational choice and that punishment should be proportionate to the crime committed. He also believed in the concept of free will and that individuals have the ability to make rational decisions. Beccaria's beliefs on crime and humanity developed along those lines because he was influenced by the Enlightenment movement, which emphasized reason, individual rights, and the pursuit of happiness. He believed that by understanding the rational motivations behind criminal behavior, society could create a more just and effective system of punishment.

The Neoclassicists refined Beccaria's philosophy by further developing the idea of proportionate punishment and emphasizing the importance of individual responsibility. They also focused on the idea of deterrence, believing that the certainty and severity of punishment could deter individuals from committing crimes. Additionally, the Neoclassicists emphasized the need for a fair and impartial legal system, free from arbitrary and excessive punishment. Overall, Beccaria's beliefs on crime and humanity laid the foundation for the Neoclassical school of criminology, which sought to create a more rational and just approach to understanding and addressing criminal behavior.

Question 3

Why would a positivist be considered a determinist?

Answer 3

A positivist might be considered a determinist because positivism is a philosophical approach that emphasizes empirical evidence and scientific methods as the primary means to acquire knowledge. Positivism is grounded in the belief that the only authentic knowledge is that which is based on actual sense experience and positive verification. This approach often leads to the conclusion that all phenomena, including human behavior, can be explained by laws of cause and effect that are discoverable through scientific investigation.

Determinism, on the other hand, is the philosophical doctrine that all events, including moral choices, are completely determined by previously existing causes. Determinism is often associated with the idea that everything that happens is the result of a sequence of causes and effects that could not have unfolded differently than they did.

The connection between positivism and determinism lies in the positivist commitment to the scientific method and the search for regularities and causal laws in the natural and social world. If a positivist believes that all phenomena are governed by such laws, they may also believe that human behavior and decisions are determined by factors that can be understood through scientific inquiry. This perspective implies that, given enough information and understanding of the causal laws, one could predict human behavior with the same certainty that one predicts the outcomes of natural processes.

In summary, a positivist might be considered a determinist because they often hold that the scientific method can uncover the laws that govern all phenomena, including human actions, leading to the conclusion that human behavior is determined by these laws and not by free will or random chance.

Question 4

Describe a positivistic method.

Question 5

What are the potential dangers of positivism? The benefits?

Question 6

The first generally recognized school of criminology was the positivist school.

Question 7

According to Cesare Beccaria, humans are fundamentally rational and hedonistic; they possess free will and make deliberate decisions to behave based upon a calculation of the pain and pleasure involved.

Question 8

Phrenology is the determination of mental facilities and character traits from the shape of the skull.

Question 9

Cesare Lombroso described the atavist as a throwback to an earlier stage in human development whose physical traits tend to cause criminal behavior.

Question 10

Earnest Albert Hooton attempted to explain juvenile delinquency by examining the relationship between body type or physique and particular patterns of mental and behavioral characteristics or temperaments.

Question 11

_________ is any behavior or physical appearance that is socially challenged and condemned because it departs from the norms and expectations of a group.

Question 12

In dealing with deviance scientifically, the _________ approach shifts attention away from the rational deviant seeking happiness to one whose behavior is determined by forces beyond her or his control (i.e. biological, psychogenic, etc )

Question 13

What or who is deviant varies according to:

A) time
B) context of the behavior
C) whose interests are endangered by the behavior
D) all of the above
E) none of the above

Question 14

Cesare Beccaria is associated with what is now called the classical school of criminology. According to Beccaria's writings, human behavior is based on:

A) biological laws
B) economic forces
C) subcultural learning
D) rational calculation
E) structural strain

Question 15

The classical school of criminology was principally a reaction against:

A) phrenology
B) positivism
C) the harshness of the justice system
D) the increasing gap between the haves and the have-nots
E) the assumption that humans are rational

Question 16

Positivism is a philosophical approach to knowledge. It assumes that knowledge is best acquired from:

A) what is tangible
B) speculation
C) rational intuition
D) what is positive for society
E) what can be deduced from religious beliefs

Question 17

As an approach to understanding deviant behavior, positivism appeals to groups in power because:

A) it promotes large scale social change
B) it illuminates points of conflict in society
C) it allows the prestige of science to justify treating deviants as fundamentally non-normal
D) all of the above
E) none of the above

Question 18

An assumption of the positivist approach to deviant behavior is that:

A) deviation results from a pathology
B) we can never be positive about the causes of deviance
C) deviance has positive consequences for society
D) deviance is based on rational decision making
E) none of the above

Question 19

The earliest scientific study of deviants was associated with:

A) atavism
B) the classical school of criminology
C) phrenology
D) anomie
E) moral insanity

Question 20

Phrenology declined in influence as an explanation of deviance because:

A) Lombroso's research proved it to be based on false assumptions
B) It was not deterministic enough
C) the intellectual community regarded it as too fatalistic
D) Gall, its leading proponent, was discovered to be incompetent as a scientist
E) it was replaced by subcultural explanations

Question 21

Lombroso's notion of the "born criminal" was influenced by the writings of:

A) Sigmund Freud on the unconscious
B) Charles Darwin on human evolution
C) Charles Goring on human genetics
D) Cesare Beccaria on the source of determinism
E) Karl Marx on the permanence of the "dangerous classes"

Question 22

At the beginning of this century the research of Charles Goring on English convicts overturned Lombroso's theory of the "born criminal." Goring claimed his research supported the notion of:

A) criminal subcultures
B) phrenology
C) inherited criminality
D) criminal subconsciousness
E) brain malfunction