Deck 10: Psychosocial Development in Early Childhood

Question 1

Children's self-definition typically changes between about ages 5 and 7.

Answer 1

True

Question 2

Culture helps shape the understanding of the self.

Answer 2

True

Question 3

Children with noncontingent self-esteem attribute failure to their personal deficiencies, which they believe they are unable to change.

Answer 3

False

Question 4

Children with contingent self-esteem try new strategies until they find one that works.

Question 5

By about 9 years of age, children start to understand that people might have conflicting emotions such as feeling angry at someone while loving them.

Question 6

By knowing a child's sex, one can predict whether that particular boy or girl will be faster, stronger, smarter, more obedient, or more assertive than another child.

Question 7

Hormones in the prenatal environment affect the developing brain.

Question 8

New studies demonstrate the profound difficulty of predicting the outcome of sex assignment at birth, particularly on the basis of what the genitals look like.

Question 9

The theory of sexual selection states that the selection of sexual partners is a response to the differing reproductive pressures early men and women confronted in the struggle for survival.

Question 10

According to social cognitive theory, observation enables children to learn much about gender-typed behaviors before performing them.

Question 11

Girls tend to be more strongly gender-socialized concerning play preferences than boys.

Question 12

A crayon drawing is an example of functional play.

Question 13

Constructive play is also called locomotor play.

Question 14

It is true that solitary play is often a sign of shyness, anxiety, fearfulness, or social rejection.

Question 15

The tendency of children to select same-sex playmates is known as gender segregation.

Question 16

Reinforcing a child's positive behavior through praise is an example of using an internal reinforcement.

Question 17

Power assertion includes demands, threats, withdrawal of privileges, spanking, and other types of punishment.

Question 18

Parents who show affection and use positive (inductive) disciplinary strategies encourage their children's natural tendency to prosocial behavior.

Question 19

Children who are intensely emotional and low in self-control tend to express anger aggressively.

Question 20

Self-concept is essentially a ________ construction.

A) cognitive
B) biological
C) normative
D) physical

Question 21

________ is defined as a cluster of characteristics used to describe oneself.

A) Self-definition
B) Self-realization
C) Self-control
D) Self-actualization

Question 22

Lucas is 4 years old. In the context of self-definition among children, he is most likely to describe himself according to his

A) deep-seated personality traits, such as external sources of stimulation.
B) external characteristics, such as physical features and preferences.
C) global traits, such as being popular or outgoing.
D) internal traits, such as being thoughtful or worried.

Question 23

At age 4, children's self-descriptions are likely to be

A) abstract and self-critical.
B) balanced and comprehensive.
C) unrealistically positive.
D) combinations of positive and negative evaluations of self.

Question 24

Which of the following is a typical aspect of self-definition for children around the age of 7?

A) using concrete, observable behaviors to describe themselves
B) focusing solely on physical features in self-descriptions
C) being unrealistically positive in their descriptions of themselves
D) being self-critical while holding a positive overall self-concept

Question 25

In highly ________, individuals are seen as separate from one another and independence and self-reliance are highly valued.

A) individualistic cultures
B) collectivistic cultures
C) normative cultures
D) prescriptive cultures

Question 26

In ________, individuals are seen as fundamentally interrelated and group harmony and cohesiveness take precedence over individual concerns.

A) individualistic cultures
B) collectivistic cultures
C) normative cultures
D) prescriptive cultures

Question 27

In the context of contingent self-esteem, children who believe that they can succeed if they try, who enjoy challenges, and who have faith in their ability to meet those challenges tend to have parents who

A) idolize them.
B) praise their efforts.
C) appreciate their inherent abilities.
D) provide generic praise.

Question 28

Children with ________ tend to attribute failure to their personal deficiencies, which they believe they are unable to change.

A) stable self-esteem
B) reversible self-esteem
C) contingent self-esteem
D) global self-esteem

Question 29

Michael, a 5-year-old boy, participated in a painting competition held in his class and failed to qualify for the school-level competition. Michael has contingent self-esteem, and he is most likely to say that he failed because

A) the teacher is partial toward other children.
B) the time allotted was insufficient.
C) he was sick.
D) he is bad at drawing.

Question 30

About one-third to one-half of preschoolers, kindergarteners, and first graders show a "learned helplessness" pattern in which they usually

A) learn new strategies to overcome helplessness.
B) assume they will fail and do not bother to try.
C) seek help to improve their skills.
D) possess a strong sense of perseverance.

Question 31

Which of the following statements best represents an individual who has noncontingent self-esteem?

A) "I could not win the race because my horse was not physically fit."
B) "I lost the spelling bee competition because I am dyslexic."
C) "I cannot dance. I have two left feet."
D) "I could not finish the test on time because I am bad at time management."

Question 32

Children with ________ tend to attribute failure or disappointment to factors outside themselves or to the need to try harder.

A) noncontingent self-esteem
B) reversible self-esteem
C) perseverant self-esteem
D) disorganized self-esteem

Question 33

Seven-year-old Angelica gets extremely disheartened when she fails at a new task. She blames herself for her failure and begins to feel that she is worthless and that her skills are inadequate. She then avoids doing that task altogether. Which of the following should Angelica's parents avoid doing if they want Angelica to believe that she can succeed if she tries harder?

A) refrain from bestowing her with generic praises
B) focus on giving her specific, focused feedback
C) praise her more for her inherent abilities
D) encourage her to show more perseverance

Question 34

________ essentially includes both minimizing certain emotions and maximizing others.

A) Emotion mapping
B) Emotion dysfunction
C) Emotion synthesis
D) Emotion regulation

Question 35

Which of the following is true of children's ability to understand and regulate emotions?

A) Preschoolers tend to be unaware that experiences can elicit emotions and are often based on desires.
B) By about 9 years of age, children start to understand more complex aspects of emotion than before.
C) The types of conversations about emotions children participate in seldom influence their understanding of conflicting emotions.
D) Emotions such as guilt and pride first begin to develop in children who are between ages 8 and 11.

Question 36

Which of the following emotions involves a comparison of one's self or one's actions to social standards and develops only by the end of the third year of life?

A) fear
B) shame
C) joy
D) distress

Question 37

________ are directed toward the self and include guilt, shame, and pride.

A) Basic emotions
B) Innate emotions
C) Social emotions
D) Primary emotions

Question 38

Social emotions typically develop by the end of the ________ of life.

A) third year
B) sixth year
C) ninth year
D) twelfth year

Question 39

Sam is 30 months old. He is becoming aware that he is a boy and that boys play with trucks but not with dolls. This process by which Sam first acquires the features of his gender role is referred to as

A) social neutralization.
B) gender constancy.
C) gender-typing.
D) gender conservation.

Question 40

In the context of gender development, which of the following is true of the disorder called congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)?

A) Girls with this disorder have high prenatal levels of androgens (male sex hormones).
B) Girls with this disorder tend to show more preferences for dolls and doll accessories than normal girls.
C) Boys with this disorder have high postnatal levels of estrogens (female sex hormones).
D) Boys with this disorder tend to perform better on tests on mathematical computation than girls.

Question 41

Tiffany, a 5-year-old girl, prefers boys as her playmates and likes to play with boys' toys. Her worried parents consult a child psychologist. The psychologist informs them that Tiffany has high prenatal levels of male sex hormones. He tells them that prenatal exposure in utero is the reason for Tiffany's behavior. In the context of gender development, Tiffany is most likely suffering from which of the following?

A) Leydig cell hypoplasia
B) androgen insensitivity syndrome
C) conduct disorder
D) congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Question 42

Darwin's evolutionary developmental approach highlights the role of ________ in gender development.

A) self-categorization
B) gender schemas
C) sexual selection
D) gender constancy

Question 43

According to Freud's psychoanalytic approach, the process by which a young child adopts characteristics, beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors of the same-sex parent is called

A) intellectualization.
B) sublimation.
C) regression.
D) identification.

Question 44

Five-year-old Lakeem has been imitating his father closely. Lakeem's father has a successful construction business, and Lakeem proudly wears his father's company hat everywhere. Freud's psychoanalytic approach would describe Lakeem's dress preference as a sign of his

A) identification with his same-sex parent.
B) regression to an older developmental stage.
C) fixation involving his mother.
D) sublimation of repressed conflicts.

Question 45

In the context of the psychoanalytic approach to gender development, a girl who is going through the process of identification is most likely to

A) secretly wish to marry the parent of the opposite sex.
B) be spiteful toward the parent of the same sex.
C) try and adopt her father's values and attitudes.
D) try and replicate her mother's behavior and mannerisms.

Question 46

________, associated with Lawrence Kohlberg, proposes that gender knowledge precedes gendered behavior.

A) Evolutionary theory
B) Psychoanalytic theory
C) Natural sexual selection theory
D) Cognitive-developmental theory

Question 47

In the context of Kohlberg's cognitive-developmental theory, which of the following statements about gender identity is true?

A) Before the age of 5, children do not usually know which gender they belong to.
B) The acquisition of gender roles hinges on gender constancy, which develops in three stages.
C) Children usually acquire gender consistency before having a stable gender identity.
D) Gender differences in behavior precede gender knowledge.

Question 48

Amber, a 5-year-old girl, plays with racing cars and bikes. However, she is aware that her gender will not change because of her preferences and that she will remain a girl throughout her life. In the context of Kohlberg's cognitive-developmental theory, which of the following is described in this scenario?

A) Gender-typing
B) Gender segregation
C) Gender crossover
D) Gender constancy

Question 49

In the context of theories of gender development, which of the following is a problem with gender-schema theory and Kohlberg's cognitive-developmental theory?

A) Gender-stereotyping does not always become stronger than before with increased gender knowledge.
B) Gender-stereotyping falls and then rises in a developmental pattern in a child.
C) Gender schemas undermine gender stereotypes by correcting judgments about a child's behavior.
D) Gender differences in behavior precede gender knowledge.

Question 50

According to the social learning approach to gender development, a child is most likely to acquire a gender role by

A) acknowledging the biological differences between him or her and the opposite sex.
B) going through the process of identification.
C) imitating models and being rewarded for gender-appropriate behavior.
D) actively thinking about it and constructing his or her own gender-typing.

Question 51

In the context of theories of gender development, which of the following is true of Albert Bandura's social cognitive theory?

A) Children actively extract knowledge about gender from their environment before engaging in gender-typed behavior.
B) Children tend to misremember information that challenges gender stereotypes.
C) Children create their environments through their choice of playmates and activities.
D) Gender constancy increases children's attention toward gender-relevant information.

Question 52

Martha, a psychologist, believes that children learn how to behave appropriately either as a boy or as a girl by observing how others behave around them in their homes, schools, and playgrounds. Based on the given information, it can be said that Martha supports ________ theory.

A) humanistic
B) social cognitive
C) evolutionary
D) psychoanalytic

Question 53

Which of the following is an example of functional play?

A) Andrew, a 3-year-old boy, acting like a warrior king
B) Jessica, a 2-year-old girl, drawing with a crayon
C) David, a 3-year-old boy, rolling a ball
D) John, a 2-year-old boy, building a house of blocks

Question 54

Which of the following is an example of constructive play?

A) Helena and Carter have converted the space below the dining table into a clinic and are playing the roles of a doctor and a patient.
B) Tasha, Marlene, and Wendy are playing hopscotch just outside their porch.
C) Karen and Drake are building a model of a house with a chimney from the discarded box of their new television set.
D) Keith and his older brother are playing with a Frisbee in their backyard.

Question 55

Dramatic play

A) essentially involves playing with objects to construct something.
B) primarily consists of repeated practice of large muscular movements and represents the simplest level of play.
C) essentially rests on the symbolic function.
D) involves organized games with known procedures and penalties.

Question 56

Formal games with rules

A) are called object games as they involve the use of objects or materials to make something, such as a house of blocks or a crayon drawing.
B) are restricted to locomotor play, which consists of repeated practice of large muscular movements.
C) involve make-believe objects, actions, or roles and rest on the symbolic function.
D) are organized games with known procedures and penalties, such as hopscotch and marbles.

Question 57

Going from the simplest to the most complex, which of the following sequences of Smilansky's types of play is correct?

A) dramatic play, functional play, formal games with rules, constructive play
B) functional play, constructive play, dramatic play, formal games with rules
C) constructive play, dramatic play, functional play, formal games with rules
D) constructive play, functional play, dramatic play, formal games with rules

Question 58

________ identified six types of play based on children's level of social involvement.

A) Jean Piaget
B) Diana Baumrind
C) Mildred Parten
D) Sandra Bem

Question 59

Brandon, a 4-year-old boy, watches other children play, talks to other children, and makes suggestions about their games. However, he does not enter into the play. In the context of Parten's categories of social and nonsocial play, which of the following types of play is described in this scenario?

A) associative play
B) solitary independent play
C) parallel play
D) onlooker behavior

Question 60

Alana's teacher informs her mother that Alana has lied about doing her homework. When Alana comes home from school, her mother spanks her so that she never lies again. Alana's mother's reaction to her misdeed is termed

A) relational aggression.
B) negative reinforcement.
C) disciplinary action.
D) corporal punishment.

Question 61

In the context of discipline, which of the following is true of inductive techniques?

A) They are intended to instill respect for parental authority.
B) They tend to arouse empathy for the victim of wrongdoing.
C) They often result in mental health issues and criminal behavior in later life.
D) They involve the use of physical force such as spanking and hitting to correct behavior.

Question 62

Nina's 8-year-old daughter, Sara, is extremely unruly and cannot be reasoned with through any amount of pleading. At the grocery store, Sara almost drops an entire rack of canned products on herself while trying to shake the rack violently. Nina gets angry, but she decides to ignore it. Even after they reach home, Nina chooses to ignore the earlier incident to avoid Sara's tantrums. Considering the dangerous consequences Sara's action could have had, Nina should have addressed it immediately. In this scenario, Nina should have ideally

A) tried to evoke guilt in Sara by punishing her.
B) used corporal punishment on Sara and given her a lengthy explanation.
C) given Sara some form of punishment tied to her behavior after they reached home.
D) humiliated Sara in front of the other customers at the grocery store.

Question 63

Julian is explaining to his young daughter why she must not play in their neighbor's garden. He tells her that the neighbors work hard to grow flowers and to maintain their garden and that if she damages their plants while playing, she will not be allowed to go outdoors alone. In the context of discipline, Julian is employing

A) inductive technique.
B) corporal punishment.
C) power assertion.
D) the withdrawal of love technique.

Question 64

________ identified authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative styles of parenting.

A) Jean Piaget
B) Mildred Parten Newhall
C) Barbara Bjorklund
D) Diana Baumrind

Question 65

Permissive parenting is a

A) parenting style emphasizing control and obedience.
B) parenting style emphasizing self-expression and self-regulation.
C) parenting style in which parents focus on their own needs rather than those of children.
D) parenting style utilizing power-assertive techniques exclusively.

Question 66

Authoritative parenting is a

A) parenting style that solely emphasizes control and obedience.
B) parenting style that places the greatest importance on parental values and rules.
C) parenting style in which parents focus on their own needs rather than those of their children throughout the formative years.
D) parenting style blending warmth and respect for a child's individuality with an effort to instill social values.

Question 67

Adam, a 5-year-old boy, is born out of wedlock, and his mother and grandparents do not care much about him and consider him a burden. As a result, he develops certain behavioral disorders and does not obey his family. In the context of Baumrind's model of parenting styles, which of the following parenting styles has caused the behavioral disorders in Adam?

A) authoritative parenting
B) neglectful parenting
C) permissive parenting
D) authoritarian parenting

Question 68

The motivation to help others without expectation of reward that often involves self-denial or self-sacrifice is known as

A) altruism.
B) egocentrism.
C) animism.
D) pragmatism.

Question 69

Aggression that is openly directed at its target is known as

A) subtle aggression.
B) social aggression.
C) overt aggression.
D) relational aggression.

Question 70

Aggression aimed at damaging or interfering with another person's relationships, reputation, or psychological well-being is known as

A) instrumental aggression.
B) hostile aggression.
C) overt aggression.
D) relational aggression.

Question 71

Which of the following is true of fearfulness in children?

A) Young children's fears stem largely from their intense fantasy life and their tendency to confuse appearance with reality.
B) Young children are more likely to be frightened by something capable of doing great harm than by something that looks scary.
C) It is both unusual and inappropriate for young children to have fears.
D) It is normal for children's fears to increase as they age.

Question 72

Describe the four levels of play and give an example for each of the four levels.

Question 73

Describe inductive reasoning, power assertion, and withdrawal of love.

Question 74

Write a note on aggressive behavior in childhood.