Deck 3: Learning and Memory

Question 1

Classical conditioning takes place when a(n)________ is continuously matched with a(n)________.

A) conditioned stimulus; conditioned response
B) unconditioned response; conditioned response
C) conditioned stimulus; unconditioned stimulus
D) unconditioned stimulus; unconditioned response

Answer 1

C

Question 2

If a conditioned stimulus is only occasionally matched with an unconditioned stimulus,the association between the two will weaken.This is called ________.

A) generalisation
B) interference
C) the spacing effect
D) extinction

Answer 2

D

Question 3

Which theory listed below assumes that learning takes place as the result of responses to external events?

A) Behavioural learning
B) Episodic learning
C) Incidental learning
D) Gestalt learning

Answer 3

A

Question 4

The researcher and theorist most associated with instrumental conditioning is ________.

A) Pavlov
B) Skinner
C) Keller
D) Werner

Question 5

Determining the most effective reinforcement schedule to use with consumers is important to marketers.What type of reinforcement schedule is most likely being used when,after a period of time has passed,the first response a consumer makes brings the reward?

A) Fixed-interval reinforcement
B) Variable-interval reinforcement
C) Fixed-ratio reinforcement
D) Variable-ratio reinforcement

Question 6

________ refers to a relatively permanent change in behaviour that is caused by experience.

A) Adjustment
B) Shaping
C) Reinforcement
D) Learning

Question 7

The ________ refers to the tendency people have to react to stimuli similar to an original stimulus in a classical conditioning situation in much the same way they responded to the original stimulus.

A) masking illusion
B) sensory memory
C) cueing effect
D) halo effect

Question 8

Much learning takes effort and time,but some learning is so casual as to be unintentional.This type of learning is referred to as ________ learning.

A) stage one
B) subliminal
C) incidental
D) evoked

Question 9

What mechanism is used when a consumer learns to perform responses that produce positive outcomes?

A) Extinction
B) Punishment
C) Negative reinforcement
D) Positive reinforcement

Question 10

Which of the following occurs when a customer learns that two products are different even though the packages of both products look similar?

A) Extinction
B) Brand equity
C) Stimulus generalisation
D) Stimulus discrimination

Question 11

Another name for instrumental conditioning is ________ conditioning.

A) operant
B) neoclassical
C) stimulus
D) reward

Question 12

If a woman gets compliments after wearing Obsession perfume,she is more likely to keep buying the product and wearing it.What type of instrumental conditioning has occurred in the situation?

A) Neutral reinforcement
B) Positive reinforcement
C) Negative reinforcement
D) Symbolic reinforcement

Question 13

In instrumental conditioning,what is the distinction between negative reinforcement and punishment?

A) There is no difference. They are two words for the same thing.
B) Negative reinforcement can occur when a stimulus is positive, and punishment occurs when a stimulus is painful.
C) Negative reinforcement occurs when a negative outcome is avoided, while punishment occurs when an action causes a negative outcome.
D) Negative reinforcement creates a preference for negative results, while punishment teaches people to avoid negative results.

Question 14

Stimulus generalisation refers to ________.

A) the tendency for stimuli to be similar in nature
B) the fact that most conditioned stimuli are similar to unconditioned stimuli
C) the tendency of stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus (CS) to evoke similar, conditioned responses
D) the tendency for extinction to occur when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus

Question 15

A department store decides to use 'mystery shoppers' at unannounced times to test for service quality among its personnel.Store personnel are rewarded for excellent service attitudes.Which of the following reinforcement schedules would most likely apply in this situation?

A) Fixed-ratio reinforcement
B) Fixed-interval reinforcement
C) Variable-frequency reinforcement
D) Variable-interval reinforcement

Question 16

________ was first demonstrated in experiments performed on dogs by Ivan Pavlov,a Russian physiologist doing research on digestion in animals.

A) Instrumental conditioning
B) Classical conditioning
C) Cognitive conditioning
D) Extinction conditioning

Question 17

Behavioural learning theorists do not focus on internal thought processes; rather,they look to external evidence to study learning.What aspects of the environment are of most concern to behaviourists in studying learning?

A) Energy and work
B) Stimulus and response
C) Thought and memory
D) Sensation and perception

Question 18

A woman no longer receives compliments on the perfume she wears.In learning terms,the stimulus-response connection has weakened.Which of the following processes best explains what has occurred in the example?

A) Negative reinforcement
B) Extinction
C) Discrimination
D) Generalisation

Question 19

According to the theory of classical conditioning,________ should be encouraged by promoting the unique attributes of a well-established brand.

A) stimulus generalisation
B) the halo effect
C) stimulus discrimination
D) extinction

Question 20

Family branding,licensing and look-alike packaging are all marketing strategies based on ________.

A) stimulus generalisation
B) the spacing effect
C) stimulus discrimination
D) extinction

Question 21

________ memory permits temporary storage of information we receive from our senses.

A) Elaborative
B) Sensory
C) Cognitive
D) Working

Question 22

Many marketers use 'the good old days' as a common theme in promotional messages.This is a strategy of focusing on ________.

A) the highlighting effect
B) the halo effect
C) nostalgia
D) memory spikes

Question 23

What type of learning theory emphasises that people are problem solvers who actively use information from the world around them to master their environment?

A) Instrumental conditioning
B) Classical conditioning
C) Cognitive learning
D) Operant conditioning

Question 24

________ involves a process of acquiring information and storing it over time so that it will be available when needed.

A) Memory
B) Recognition
C) Comprehension
D) Attention

Question 25

Herbal companies traditionally sold their products in cylinder-shaped plastic containers that were very characteristic of the herbal market.One company broke with tradition and began to sell its herbal products in bottles that appeared to be straight from the pharmacy's shelf.They were rectangular with white labels that looked very professional and very serious.Sales went through the roof.What form of stimulus generalisation seems to be working for the herbal company?

A) Masked branding
B) Halo effect
C) Continual reinforcement
D) Shaping

Question 26

According to the information-processing approach to studying the memory process,in the ________ stage,information enters in a way the system will recognise.

A) storage
B) retrieval
C) encoding
D) decoding

Question 27

Which of the following has occurred when a stimulus is able to evoke a weakened response years after the stimulus was first perceived?

A) Spontaneous recovery
B) Scripting
C) Reverse extinction
D) Response bias

Question 28

________ memories relate to events that are personally relevant; therefore,a person's motivation to retain these memories will likely be strong.

A) Sensory
B) Episodic
C) Primary
D) Elaborative

Question 29

John wants to teach his dog to do tricks such as 'sit up,' 'roll over,' and 'fetch a stick.' By systematically rewarding his dog for responding in the correct way,John is able to accomplish great progress over a 30-day period.John was able to teach his dog using which of the following learning processes?

A) Classical conditioning
B) Instrumental conditioning
C) Stimulation conditioning
D) Extinction conditioning

Question 30

Memories of products are often replaced (forgotten)as we learn additional information.This displacement of information is called ________.

A) the highlighting effect
B) interference
C) decay
D) generalisation

Question 31

Claudia Norman was a marketing consultant.She recommended that brand equity for a new environmentally-friendly product could be established by giving her initial customers free memberships in the Green Peace Organisation.Claudia used which of the following in her recommendation?

A) Promotional conditioning
B) Emotional learning
C) Classical conditioning
D) Instrumental conditioning

Question 32

________ learning occurs when an individual watches the actions of others and notes the reinforcements they receive for their behaviours.

A) Observational
B) Reinforced
C) Halo effect
D) Masked

Question 33

People tend to give "yes" responses to questions,regardless of what they are asked.This is an example of ________.

A) response bias
B) elaborative rehearsal
C) salience
D) nostalgia

Question 34

Within a knowledge structure,which of the following is the LEAST complex knowledge unit?

A) Meaning
B) Proposition
C) Schema
D) Script

Question 35

The popular marketing technique known as ________ marketing applies the principles of instrumental conditioning by reinforcing regular purchases; consumers are given rewards with values that increase along with the amount purchased.

A) rebate
B) discount
C) reward
D) frequency

Question 36

In a typical ________ test,subjects are shown ads one at a time and asked if they have seen them before.

A) recall
B) recognition
C) chunking
D) salience

Question 37

Sam was humming the Mortein Louie the Fly jingle as he was driving down the expressway.A thought suddenly occurs to him: "Why am I humming this stupid jingle? I don't buy this stuff or even need it!" Sam knows this jingle through ________.

A) stimulus generalisation
B) reinforcement modelling
C) incidental learning
D) operant conditioning

Question 38

Almost any technique that increases the novelty of a stimulus also improves recall of the stimulus.This result is called the ________.

A) highlighting effect
B) von Restorff effect
C) spacing effect
D) halo effect

Question 39

Frank is sitting in his Psychology 101 class listening to his professor attempt to explain the 'black box' process and its connection with learning.He suddenly smells the aroma of fresh cinnamon rolls and his mouth begins to water.He looks around and sees a student in the last row bite into a big,juicy roll."I wish I were sitting next to him," Frank thinks,"because I know I could steal a bite".What Frank just went through in class was similar to the 'black box' process being described by his professor.This process is most closely associated with which of the following learning methods?

A) Incidental learning
B) Gestalt learning
C) Cognitive learning
D) Behavioural learning

Question 40

A sales manager pays a bonus to new trainees when they develop a good sales prospectus.Later,after the trainees have completed two months of training,the manager pays a bonus only for an actual sale.The manager is applying what process of instrumental conditioning to help the trainees be productive in their sales careers?

A) Shaping
B) Modelling
C) Negative reinforcement
D) Variable-ratio reinforcement

Question 41

Stimulus generalisation can create a halo effect.

Question 42

The two major approaches associated with behavioural learning theory are classical conditioning and observational learning.

Question 43

Which type of reinforcement best characterises what an individual would typically experience while fishing?

A) Fixed-interval reinforcement
B) Variable-interval reinforcement
C) Fixed-ratio reinforcement
D) Mixed-ratio reinforcement

Question 44

"It's time for the Christmas shopping list," thought Martha's mother,so she asked Martha for a quick list of her favourite perfumes.Martha gave her mother six names that were all her 'favourite.' This group constitutes Martha's ________ for perfume.

A) position set
B) activation set
C) rational set
D) evoked set

Question 45

Behavioural theorists rely on internal mental states to explain learning.

Question 46

Consumers' attraction to poker machines can be explained by the variable-ratio reinforcement schedule the machines use.

Question 47

Cognitive learning theory approaches stress the importance of internal mental processes.

Question 48

Scott thought of himself as a very successful marketer.He created a campaign with a product logo that was very popular and which customers associated with a quality product.It was so popular that in a few months the logo began to appear almost everywhere.Instead of increasing sales of the product,the customer demand began to decrease as competitors' products became more successful.What characteristic of learning was ruining Scott's apparent success?

A) Too much repetition was decreasing the strength of the CS, thus leading to extinction of the learned relationship between the logo, the quality of the product and the association with Scott's company.
B) Customers confused Scott's logo with the logos of Scott's competitors, making cognitive learning incomplete.
C) The logo produced only a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement that did not sustain sales, while Scott's competitors used a variable-ratio schedule.
D) Over time the logo became boring, and customers punished Scott's company by buying competitors' products as a type of revenge for their boredom.

Question 49

Melissa knows that when she goes to the dentist she must make an appointment,show up on time,bring proof of insurance,and have her teeth cleaned before any other dental services will be performed.With respect to her visit to the dentist,Melissa has learned a schema known as a(n)________.

A) service script
B) evoked set
C) proposition
D) elaborative rehearsal

Question 50

On her first visit to China,Jane did not know how to pay for the produce she had selected at a market.She watched several Chinese women pay for their selections and then Jane copied their behaviour.In this example,Jane used ________.

A) shaping
B) stimulus discrimination
C) modelling
D) stimulus generalisation

Question 51

According to the definition of learning,how could a researcher ever show that cognitive learning had taken place in a subject?

A) By removing the conditioned stimulus
B) By measuring a behavioural change that could directly be tied to a previous experience
C) By measuring the brainwave pattern of the subject
D) By relying upon an intuitive feel for the amount of learning the subject had experienced

Question 52

When a company engages in a 'piggybacking strategy,' it is hoping that customers will be able to discriminate between the company's product and a competitor's product.

Question 53

Susan picks and runs her focus groups carefully.She wants to make sure that each focus group member provides meaningful information for her research purpose.As she is examining potential focus group candidates,she notices that three men and two women seem to provide "yes" answers regardless of what she asks them.They seem to want to be on the focus group very badly and appear eager to be 'good subjects.' If Susan follows prudent testing methodology,she should reject these test subjects in order to avoid the possibility of which of the following biases?

A) Neophyte bias
B) Order bias
C) Response bias
D) Affinity bonding bias

Question 54

Samantha is passing down the cereal aisle when she spots a box of Coco Pops cereal featuring 'Coco the Monkey' on the box.She remembers the taste of the cereal and how much fun she had talking to 'Coco' while she ate her cereal as a kid.She buys a box and leaves the cereal aisle without examining any other cereal products.What aspect of the retrieval process did Samantha use in her product search process?

A) Salience
B) The von Restoff effect
C) The spacing effect
D) State-dependent retrieval

Question 55

Secret shoppers may be used by marketers to test the effectiveness of service quality among employees.This is a form of variable-interval reinforcement.

Question 56

When Pavlov's famous dogs responded to a bell signalling feeding time,they were exhibiting what is called classical conditioning.

Question 57

As May-Lee considers her purchase of perfume,she shifts back and forth between thinking about claims made by the different brands,remembering ads she has seen,and considering her emotional responses to the various brands.Which of the following processes most accurately describes what May-Lee is going through?

A) Spreading activation
B) Advertising decay
C) Polar parallels
D) Scalar processing

Question 58

Conditioning effects are more likely to occur after the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli have been paired a number of times.

Question 59

Erika landed a job as an analyst for a small marketing research firm whose task was to observe and probe patient behaviours at a small suburban clinic.In her study,she noticed that many of the patients had a tendency to underestimate the time since their last doctor visit.The memory lapse she observed was due to a memory problem called ________.

A) omitting
B) averaging
C) telescoping
D) normalising

Question 60

Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behaviour that is caused by experience.

Question 61

Episodic memories are likely to become part of a person's long-term memory.

Question 62

When Shira was a young girl,her teacher gave her a sticker every time she earned above 90 per cent on a test.Shira's teacher was using classical conditioning.

Question 63

The process of stimulus generalisation is often central to branding and packaging decisions that attempt to capitalise on consumers' positive associations with an existing brand or company name.In this context,list and briefly discuss the four strategies based on stimulus generalisation presented in the text.

Question 64

A free recall test of a sample of potential customers would involve showing ads one at a time and asking each respondent if they had seen it before.

Question 65

Define the terms 'learning' and 'incidental learning.'

Question 66

Compare and contrast classical and instrumental (operant)conditioning.

Question 67

Marketers assist in the process called elaborative rehearsal when they use catchy slogans or jingles to help consumers remember information about products or services.

Question 68

Fixed-interval reinforcement explains why airlines' frequent flyer programs are so successful.

Question 69

Retrieval is the process whereby we recover information from long-term memory.

Question 70

John Deere established a reputation for building dependable farm tractors.When the company began to build small yard tractors,it insisted on using the same logo on its small mowers as on its large tractors.John Deere was applying stimulus generalisation through look-alike packaging.

Question 71

Shari Gomez sees the big red heart on the front of a Cheerios box and immediately thinks of an ad she has seen that discusses the heart-healthy benefits of Cheerios.This is an illustration of a stimulus-response connection.

Question 72

A mother observes her daughter stirring batter in a bowl just the way she does when she bakes.The daughter has modelled her mother's behaviour.

Question 73

One of the goals of successful marketing is to have potential customers think of the marketer's product whenever they try to remember products within a certain category.This remembered set of products is called an evoked set.

Question 74

For modelling behaviour to occur during observational learning,four conditions must be met.What are those conditions? Be specific in your description.

Question 75

The success of hybrid ads supports the idea that the viewing environment of a marketing message affects recall.

Question 76

The observational learning process begins with a step called motivation.

Question 77

The salience of a brand refers to its degree of pricing flexibility (i.e.,frequency of price changes).

Question 78

What is the capacity of short-term memory? Comment and explain.

Question 79

The spacing effect describes the tendency for consumers to more effectively recall printed material when the advertiser repeats the target item repeatedly in a short time period rather than periodically over a longer time span.

Question 80

Give a brief explanation of cognitive learning.