Deck 7: Attitudes, Behavior, and Rationalization

Question 1

Michelle just watched a film that showed several high-speed chases on city streets.On her way home from the theater,she drives much faster than normal.This example best illustrates that

A) attitudes do a better job of predicting behavior when they are at the same level of specificity.
B) when the components of attitudes mismatch, attitudes do a poor job of predicting behavior.
C) introspection does not always reveal our true attitudes.
D) behavior can be automatic, primed by features in our environment.

Answer 1

behavior can be automatic, primed by features in our environment.

Question 2

Researchers should make use of ________ when assessing attitudes that people may be unwilling or unable to report.

A) Likert scales
B) implicit measures
C) questionnaires
D) surveys

Answer 2

implicit measures

Question 3

The ________ component of an attitude consists of the degree to which the person likes or dislikes the attitude object.

A) cognitive
B) affective
C) behavioral
D) knowledge

Answer 3

affective

Question 4

According to research on cognitive dissonance theory,people betting on horses at the racetrack should feel ________ after placing their bets than before placing their bets.

A) more anxious
B) more confident
C) less happy
D) less tired

Question 5

Candice really likes action films.Under which condition is introspecting about why she likes action films likely to WEAKEN the association between her attitude toward action films and her intention to go to see an action film at the theater?

A) if the basis for the attitude is easy to identify
B) if the basis for the attitude is a childhood experience
C) if the basis for the attitude is largely affective
D) if the basis for the attitude is largely cognitive

Question 6

When researchers use a Likert scale to assess participants' attitudes,they

A) ask participants to use numbers to indicate the extent to which they agree with a particular statement.
B) record participants' response latency to a question about their attitudes.
C) code the content of participants' spontaneous speech.
D) obtain participants' descriptions of how they would behave in a particular situation.

Question 7

Which of the following studies best supports Festinger's (1957)cognitive dissonance theory?

A) a study showing that voters express more support for their candidate right before voting than they do right after voting
B) a study showing that people value academic achievement more strongly after reading education-related words than after reading sports-related words
C) a study showing that people express more confidence in a bet right after making it than they do right before making it
D) a study showing that introspection leads to less attitude-behavior consistency than does an absence of introspection

Question 8

Attitudes do a good job predicting behavior when

A) there is discord among the affective and cognitive components of the attitude.
B) attitudes are measured with Likert scales.
C) attitudes and behavior are measured at the same levels of specificity.
D) introspecting about an attitude that is hard to pin down.

Question 9

A(n)________ is an evaluation of an object in a positive or negative fashion.

A) attitude
B) behavior
C) rationalization
D) emotion

Question 10

Although Quan believes that child safety is important,he often forgets to use a car seat when taking his toddler to day care.What does this best illustrate about the relationship between attitudes and behavior?

A) Attitudes are sometimes poor predictors of behavior.
B) Attitudes and behavior are sometimes balanced.
C) Sometimes behavior is a good predictor of attitudes.
D) Attitudes often prime behavior.

Question 11

Jamal loves strawberry ice cream,whereas Maria does not feel strongly about strawberry ice cream.Which of them would have longer response latencies (i.e.,would respond more slowly)to a question about his or her attitude toward strawberry ice cream?

A) Jamal would have a longer response latency than Maria.
B) Maria would have a longer response latency than Jamal.
C) They would each have a similar response latency, because they each like ice cream.
D) It would be impossible to measure the response latency for an attitude such as this.

Question 12

Ruben,a marketing executive for Apple,wants to predict a person's iPod-related behavior from his or her attitude about iPods.To this end,Ruben will administer a survey asking people their attitudes about iPods.Two years later,he will ask these same people to report on their behavior related to iPods.According to research on attitude-behavior consistency,Ruben should measure people's attitudes and behavior at the same level of specificity.Which of the following pairs of questions best satisfies this criterion?

A) "How positively do you feel about iPods?" and "Have you used an iPod in the last month?"
B) "How do you feel about iPods?" and "Have you used an iPod in the last two years?"
C) "How much do you want to buy an iPod within the next two years?" and "Have you bought an iPod in the last two years?"
D) "How negative do you feel about iPods?" and "How much have you talked about iPods in the last month?"

Question 13

Although you want to chat with your friend during class,you're worried that the professor or other students would notice,so you choose not to talk to your friend.This best illustrates that

A) your attitude toward your friend is less positive than you think.
B) your attitude toward class is stronger than your attitude toward your friend.
C) automatic behavior can be completely separate from your attitude.
D) powerful social norms can override the influence of attitudes on behavior.

Question 14

According to what you learned in this chapter,________ attitudes tend to be stronger than ________ attitudes.

A) new; old
B) old; new
C) negative; positive
D) positive; negative

Question 15

For obvious reasons,department store managers strongly disapprove of shoplifters.However,some stores allow shoplifters to leave with merchandise! These stores do not want to create a scene that will disturb good patrons.This scenario illustrates the social psychological finding that

A) attitudes are determined by reasoned action.
B) behaviors are not determined solely by attitudes.
C) prevailing norms of appropriate behavior are irrational.
D) attitudes prompt attitude-consistent behaviors.

Question 16

Lenora can't decide whether to buy a new video game or a new pair of jeans with the birthday money her grandmother gave her.Although she likes both video games and new clothes,she has to make a choice and decides to go with the video game.Right after buying the game,however,she experiences a lot of negative emotion because she really liked the jeans but did not buy them.In this example,the negative emotional state Lenora experiences after buying the video game despite liking the jeans is called

A) dissonance.
B) embodiment.
C) overjustification.
D) rationalization.

Question 17

Molly knows the history of her home city of Philadelphia.There are three landmarks downtown that she always shows to friends who visit.This knowledge of Philadelphia is the ________ component of her attitude toward her city.

A) cognitive
B) affective
C) behavioral
D) knowledge

Question 18

According to research by Wilson and colleagues (1984),why might introspecting about the reasons for an attitude decrease the association between the attitude and behavior?

A) It decreases perceptions of control and attention to social norms.
B) It misleads us about our "real" attitudes.
C) Introspection generates emotions that weaken one's attitudes.
D) Introspection increases ambivalence and uncertainty over our beliefs.

Question 19

Recall that Wilson and his colleagues (1984)asked students about their current romantic relationships.Participants in Group 1 were asked for an overall evaluation of their relationships,whereas participants in Group 2 were additionally asked to explain why they felt the way they did.Nearly nine months later,the researchers contacted the participants again and asked them about the current status of their relationships.Which of the following statements most accurately captures the study's results?

A) The attitudes of Group 1 participants better predicted current relationship status than the attitudes of Group 2 participants.
B) The attitudes of Group 2 participants better predicted current relationship status than the attitudes of Group 1 participants.
C) The attitudes of Group 1 participants were much more positive than those of Group 2 participants.
D) The attitudes of Group 2 participants were much more positive than those of Group 1 participants.

Question 20

In the 1930s,a time when anti-Asian sentiments were common,LaPiere (1934)toured the United States with a young Chinese couple.Together they visited numerous hotels,auto camps,restaurants,and cafes.LaPiere compared the attitudes of people who managed these various establishments with how well (or poorly)these people actually treated the Chinese couple.The text used this study to introduce an important point,namely,that the effect of ________ than people think.

A) attitudes on behavior is weaker
B) norms on attitudes is stronger
C) attitudes on behavior is stronger
D) norms on attitudes is weaker

Question 21

Kitayama and colleagues (2004)conducted an investigation comparing cognitive dissonance across Japanese and Canadian participants.All participants were asked to rank CDs.Participants in one condition were asked to choose one CD to keep among their middle two rankings,while participants in another condition were given a CD without any choice.While completing these study procedures one group of participants was exposed to a poster with faces,designed to prime the concept of other people.The results showed that the poster manipulation ________ cognitive dissonance for ________ participants.

A) reduced; Japanese
B) amplified; both Japanese and Canadian
C) amplified; Canadian
D) amplified; Japanese

Question 22

Jeff believes in saving the environment but finds himself throwing away aluminum cans because his college campus does not recycle.________ would predict that he may experience an aversive emotional state due to the inconsistency between his attitudes and his behavior.

A) The elaboration likelihood model
B) Induced compliance theory
C) Self-affirmation theory
D) Cognitive dissonance theory

Question 23

If engaging in a behavior that is inconsistent with an attitude ________,East Asians are ________ likely to experience cognitive dissonance than Westerners.

A) when alone; more
B) when alone; less
C) when tired; more
D) when tired; less

Question 24

Mark cannot decide which video game to purchase.After thinking it over,he buys the latest fighting game rather than a soccer game he liked just as much.As he leaves the store,he feels an uncomfortable tension.In order to resolve this tension,Mark must engage in

A) self-perception processes.
B) introspection.
C) self-verification.
D) dissonance reduction.

Question 25

Laureano has a strong preference for Honda over all other car brands.When it came time to buy a new car,however,there was a promotion that offered a very small discount on Nissans and Laureano elected to buy a Nissan,even though he likes Hondas a lot better.What is the most likely reason why Laureano would experience dissonance in the wake of this behavior (buying the Nissan instead of a Honda)?

A) This behavior was based on introspection.
B) This behavior was not freely chosen.
C) This behavior has long-term negative consequences.
D) There was insufficient justification for this behavior.

Question 26

Recall that Festinger and Carlsmith (1959)gave participants either $1 or $20 for telling others that an experiment was fun and interesting.The experiment entailed turning pegs on a pegboard one quarter turn at a time.Thus,in actuality,the experiment was tedious and boring.The study results showed that

A) neither $1 nor $20 could induce participants to tell other people that the experiment was interesting.
B) after telling people that the experiment was interesting, participants in the $1 condition tended to express a more favorable attitude toward the experiment.
C) after telling people that the experiment was interesting, participants in the $20 condition tended to express a more favorable attitude toward the experiment.
D) participants in the $1 condition were less likely to follow the experimenter's instructions.

Question 27

Theories that emphasize uniformity between the components of attitudes and between attitudes and behavior are called ________ theories.

A) cognitive consistency
B) reinforcement
C) attribution
D) cognition-based

Question 28

Getting paid a lot of money to do things that violate one's core values,as compared to getting no money to violate one's values,should

A) not produce much dissonance.
B) produce a lot of dissonance.
C) lead to attitude change.
D) prompt confusion over one's true attitude.

Question 29

Many people who choose not to have children suspect that homebound,sleep-deprived,and financially strapped parents are fooling themselves when they say that nothing in life brings them more pleasure.In other words,these childless people suggest that parents put a lot of energy into ________ in order to decrease cognitive dissonance.

A) peripheral processing
B) effort justification
C) balancing
D) arousing thoughts

Question 30

According to the concept of effort justification,

A) experiencing hazing should increase one's allegiance to a fraternity.
B) working too hard for a promotion should lead one to underestimate its attractiveness.
C) feeling overwhelmed should prompt a person to give up.
D) receiving tutoring free of charge should increase one's motivation to study.

Question 31

Let's say a company that makes a consumer product such as laundry detergent asks customers to write a testimonial about the product in exchange for a small chance of winning a small prize.What does cognitive dissonance theory predict will happen to consumers who participate and write the testimonial?

A) They will feel positive emotions.
B) They will feel negative emotions.
C) They will come to hold more positive attitudes toward the product.
D) They will come to hold more negative attitudes toward the product.

Question 32

Research on cognitive dissonance teaches a broad and important lesson about how to influence someone else's attitudes.Specifically,if you want people to ________ the broader value or message behind what you got them to do,then you should use the ________ amount of incentive or coercion necessary to induce compliance.

A) reject; smallest
B) ignore; largest
C) accept; smallest
D) accept; largest

Question 33

After doing poorly on his biology exam,Jim reminds himself that he is a good artist and a loving boyfriend.Thus,Jim is using ________ to cope with a potential threat to his self-esteem.

A) cognitive dissonance
B) self-affirmation
C) effort justification
D) self-love

Question 34

When people take stock of their strengths and accomplishments,they are engaging in ________ ,which ________ the experience of cognitive dissonance.

A) system justification; increases
B) system justification; decreases
C) self-affirmation; increases
D) self-affirmation; decreases

Question 35

Claude Steele's research suggests that people given the opportunity to engage in ________ are ________ likely to experience cognitive dissonance.

A) self-affirmation; more
B) self-affirmation; less
C) self-perception; more
D) self-perception; less

Question 36

Induced compliance is a form of behavior that

A) is inconsistent with one's beliefs, attitudes, or values.
B) increases confidence in one's self-perceptions.
C) harms other people.
D) elicits positive impressions from authority figures.

Question 37

Consider the following saying: "If at first you don't succeed,try,try again." According to cognitive dissonance theory,trying again should ________ how much you value the outcome of your efforts.

A) increase
B) decrease
C) not affect
D) increase confusion over

Question 38

Recall that in one study (Festinger and Carlsmith,1959),the experimenter showed children a set of five toys and asked them how much they liked each one.Then the experimenter told each child that he or she was free to play with any of the toys except for the child's second favorite toy.In the "mild threat" condition,children were told that the experimenter would be "annoyed" if they played with the forbidden toy.In the "severe threat" condition,children were told that the experimenter would be "very angry" if they played with the forbidden toy,and that the child would never see any of the toys ever again.The experimenter then left the room,and each child was covertly observed.Later on,the experimenter asked each child to reevaluate the toys.Consistent with cognitive dissonance theory,the results showed that children in the

A) "mild threat" condition tended to view the toy less favorably than children in the "severe threat" condition.
B) "severe threat" condition tended to view the toy less favorably than children in the "mild threat" condition.
C) "mild threat" condition were less likely to play with the toy while the experimenter was away from the room.
D) "severe threat" condition were less likely to play with the toy while the experimenter was away from the room.

Question 39

Min,a student from China,is good friends with Tanja,a student from Germany.According to research on cognitive dissonance,when is Min more likely to experience dissonance than Tanja?

A) Min and Tanja will respond similarly across conditions.
B) when Min chooses between two necklaces for herself
C) when Min chooses between two pairs of shoes as a gift for her mother
D) when Min listens to loud music while shopping

Question 40

Making hard decisions triggers negative emotion,which in turn triggers processes of rationalization that make us comfortable with our decisions.This statement captures the phenomenon explained by ________ theory.

A) cognitive dissonance
B) discrepancy
C) self-perception
D) attitude inoculation

Question 41

Why is it a good idea for incumbent politicians to campaign for maintaining the safety and security of their countries?

A) because it allows people to maintain balance
B) because people are motivated to maintain the status quo, particularly when their own mortalities are made salient
C) because it helps people justify their efforts
D) because it facilitates self-perception processes, particularly when their own mortalities are made salient

Question 42

The self-perception processes posited by Bem (1967,1972)are particularly likely to be invoked when

A) behavior is inconsistent with attitudes that are relatively vague.
B) behavior is inconsistent with attitudes that are highly resistant to persuasion attempts.
C) attitudes are inconsistent with behaviors that are valued by the culture in which one lives.
D) attitudes are inconsistent with behaviors that people rarely perform in everyday life.

Question 43

To learn whether responses in cognitive dissonance experiments are the product of self-perception processes,Bem (1972)asked participants to

A) write a detailed description of one condition of a dissonance experiment and to predict how other participants would respond to that description.
B) read a detailed description of each of the conditions of a dissonance experiment and to indicate how they, themselves, would behave in each of the conditions.
C) read a detailed description of one condition of a dissonance experiment and to predict the attitude of the person depicted in the description.
D) write a detailed description of each of the conditions of a dissonance experiment and to then tell other study participants that this exercise was fun (even though it was really boring).

Question 44

In a variation on Festinger's classic study on induced compliance,participants are asked to tell a confederate that a very boring task is in fact quite fun but the confederate does not appear to be deceived by this lie.Under these circumstances,participants do not show the typical cognitive dissonance effect which suggests that inconsistency only produces dissonance if

A) the consequences of the inconsistency are foreseeable.
B) the individual doesn't have a chance to affirm themselves in another domain.
C) there is sufficient justification for the inconsistency.
D) there are negative consequences of the inconsistency.

Question 45

According to Bem's self-perception theory,

A) people reflect on their attitudes, which then lead to behaviors that reflect these attitudes.
B) people infer their own attitudes from their behaviors and the context in which these behaviors occur.
C) people influence each other's self-concept through mutual mimicry and positive reinforcement.
D) people's sense of self is determined by their values, beliefs, and preferences.

Question 46

Consider the following quote: "How do I know what I think until I hear what I say?" The sentiment expressed in this quote captures the essence of

A) the self-fulfilling prophecy.
B) cognitive dissonance theory.
C) self-perception theory.
D) self-affirmation theory.

Question 47

The ________ effect describes the situation in which we devalue activities we perform,even if they are pleasing,in order to get an external payoff.

A) superfluous reward
B) overjustification
C) cognitive dissonance
D) system justification

Question 48

Researchers find that when people behave in ways that are at odds with their attitudes,they report feeling negative emotion and even show activity in facial muscles connected to negative arousal.These results seem to support which theory about attitudes and behavior?

A) system justification theory
B) terror management theory
C) cognitive dissonance theory
D) self-perception theory

Question 49

Cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory differ in that self-perception theory emphasizes that ________ influence(s)our attitudes.

A) aversive physiological arousal
B) internal conflict
C) experiences with other people
D) inference processes about our behaviors

Question 50

Lenora's parents always taught her that she ought to "put on a happy face" even when she is not.According to research on self-perception theory,what effect does this behavior have on her corresponding internal state?

A) It makes her seem like a fake.
B) It works: behaving as if she were happy can actually make Lenora feel happier.
C) It does not work and actually makes some people even unhappier.
D) None of the answer options is correct.

Question 51

Lucy's family is not well-off.Although they wish they were more prosperous,they take comfort in the love and support they provide to each other and consider their society fair.As a result,Lucy's family does not endorse proposed changes to the laws that would provide them with better health insurance.Their behavior can be explained by ________ theory.

A) self-perception
B) self-affirmation
C) system-justification
D) balance

Question 52

Bradley narrowly escapes a head-on collision while driving home.Once he arrives home,he turns on the television and sees a political ad for the challenger in the local mayoral race,which focuses on how the challenger will change city policies if elected.According to research on terror management,how will he evaluate this ad?

A) He will reject the candidate more emphatically.
B) He will have the same opinion of the candidate as he had before the near miss.
C) He will become a strong supporter of the challenger.
D) He will throw his hat into the ring and run for mayor, too.

Question 53

Self-perception processes are most likely to occur when prior attitudes are

A) weak.
B) about extremely important matters.
C) unambiguous.
D) strongly held.

Question 54

Katerina loves to read books.Her parents think that reading books is important,so they reward her with $5 every time she reads a book.Over time,Katerina decides that she does not really love books all that much.This is an example of the

A) impact of locus of control on attitude formation.
B) consistency between parents' attitudes and children's behavior.
C) overjustification effect.
D) self-fulfilling prophesy.

Question 55

The ________ effect suggests that our intrinsic interest in an activity may diminish if we begin to receive a payoff for completing the task.According to ________ theory,this is in part because we observe ourselves doing the task for the payoff and infer that we must not enjoy the task much in its own right after all.

A) overjustification; self-perception theory
B) overjustification; cognitive dissonance
C) insufficient justification; self-perception
D) insufficient justification; cognitive dissonance

Question 56

In reconciling cognitive dissonance and self-perception theories,researchers find that dissonance reduction processes tend to occur when behavior is at odds with ________,while self-perception processes are more likely to occur when behavior is inconsistent with ________.

A) vague attitudes that are less important; important and clearly held attitudes
B) important and clearly held attitudes; vague attitudes that are less important
C) the emotional component of our attitudes; the cognitive component of our attitudes
D) the cognitive component of our attitudes; the emotional component of our attitudes

Question 57

According to research on cognitive dissonance theory,if parents want to use punishment to stop their child's bad behavior,which type of punishment would be the most effective to use?

A) mild
B) severe
C) positive
D) negative

Question 58

Cacioppo and colleagues (1993)have examined how arm movements can influence attitudes by asking participants to view Chinese characters while either extending an arm away from or flexing an arm toward themselves.Which of the following best sums up the results of this research?

A) The arm movements did not affect participants' attitudes toward the different Chinese characters.
B) The participants had more favorable attitudes toward the characters they viewed while extending an arm away, compared with flexing an arm toward.
C) The participants had more favorable attitudes toward the characters they viewed while flexing an arm toward, compared with extending an arm away.
D) Participants who nodded their heads showed the most positive attitudes toward the characters.

Question 59

Dissonance theory suggests that people ________ their attitudes as a result of dissonance,whereas self-perception theory suggests that people ________ their attitudes from observing their behaviors.

A) infer; change
B) change; infer
C) strengthen; weaken
D) weaken; strengthen

Question 60

George listens to music while studying for his biology test.While he studies,he nods his head in time to the music.Over time,George realizes he likes biology a lot more than he initially did.Why is this?

A) George's nonverbal head nods to the music while studying biology were an indication of approval that he then associated with the subject.
B) It is because George put so much effort into studying.
C) George's nonverbal head nods to the music while studying biology served a self-verification function.
D) The nonverbal head nods induced dissonance.

Question 61

In what ways does self-perception theory fall short in explaining the relationship between attitudes and behaviors?

Question 62

Compare and contrast Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory with Bem's self-perception theory.

Question 63

Challenge the widely held belief that attitudes accurately predict a person's behavior.

Question 64

Describe system justification theory.What common observations seem to support this perspective?

Question 65

Describe the basics of terror management theory and identify two situations in which this theory might be useful in explaining people's attitudes or behaviors.

Question 66

What are self-affirmations and how can they be used to ward off cognitive dissonance?

Question 67

Describe the conditions under which attitude-behavior inconsistency is most likely to produce dissonance.

Question 68

________ theory states that people deal with their anxiety over the inevitability of their own death by striving for symbolic immortality.This immortality is achieved through preserving valued cultural worldviews and believing they have lived up to the culture's standards.

A) Self-perception
B) Self-affirmation
C) Terror management
D) Mortality salience

Question 69

Suppose your friend asks you for advice on how she can encourage her son to clean his room regularly.Generate a plan,based on the principle of insufficient justification,to get her son to clean his room more often.How can she avoid the overjustification effect?

Question 70

Challenge the assumption that the experience of cognitive dissonance emerges in similar ways across cultures.

Question 71

Attitudes often fail to predict behavior with the accuracy we might expect.Explain how this failure could result from the level of specificity in which the attitudes and behaviors are measured.

Question 72

Define attitude and describe the components of an attitude.

Question 73

Describe three ways in which researchers measure attitudes.

Question 74

Explain the embodied nature of emotion and cognition and describe two research studies that show the relation between bodily movements and attitudes.

Question 75

Janet has received two job offers,one from SimpCo and another from JebCo,both companies for which she would be thrilled to work.Janet thinks a lot about each offer and ends up accepting JebCo's offer,even though she thought highly of both.Analyze the effects of Janet's decision on her later attitudes and behavior relating to both SimpCo and JebCo.To do this,draw directly on social psychological theory and research findings.

Question 76

________ theory states that people are motivated to see the existing sociopolitical setup as fair,desirable,and legitimate.

A) System justification
B) Terror management
C) Cognitive dissonance
D) Self-perception

Question 77

Describe the relationship between introspection and attitudes.Why might introspection lead an individual to misconstrue his or her attitudes?