Deck 13: Problem Solving and Intelligence

Question 1

People often compare experts to novices.Which of the following claims about this comparison is FALSE?

A)Experts become experts for a reason: they started out with better problem-solving strategies,and this allowed them to reach expert levels of performance.
B)Experts have a much larger knowledge base,including a large set of exemplars on which they can draw.
C)Experts are more familiar with the higher-order patterns common in the area of expertise.
D)Expert knowledge is more heavily cross-referenced and is therefore more easily accessible.

Answer 1

A

Question 2

Experts have several advantages in problem solving.Which of the following is NOT an advantage that was mentioned in this textbook?

A)Experts make better use of general problem-solving heuristics.
B)Experts tend to regularly use analogies.
C)Experts tend to think of problems in terms of the problem's deep structure.
D)Experts seem to have more heavily cross-referenced knowledge.

Answer 2

A

Question 3

Which of the following is NOT a procedure that makes analogy use more likely?

A)Participants are given two analogous problems,rather than just one,before the test problem.
B)Participants are given financial bonuses for each one of the test problems they are able to solve.
C)Participants are given several training problems and asked to compare the problems to one another.
D)Participants are encouraged to work at understanding the solutions of the training problems so that they can explain the solutions later on.

Answer 3

B

Question 4

Which of the following is NOT an advantage gained by visualizing a problem via a mental image?

A)The image depicts the problem in a concrete way,and this often makes the problem easier to remember.
B)The image often makes it easy to discern how the elements of the problem are spatially related to one another.
C)One can routinely make new discoveries about the imaged form,including discoveries that involve an entirely new understanding of the form.
D)It is usually easy to rearrange the elements of an image to explore other configurations.

Question 5

Participants' use of hill climbing is evident in that

A)participants solve problems more quickly if they can divide the problem into smaller subproblems.
B)problem solving often gets stalled if a problem requires participants to move briefly away from the goal state in order (ultimately)to reach the goal.
C)participants are disrupted in their problem solving if they are asked to think out loud as they proceed.
D)participants are often confused unless the problem's path constraints are clearly specified.

Question 6

Expert problem solvers

A)focus on the surface of a problem rather than on its deep structure.
B)use analogies less often than do novices.
C)tend to categorize problems in terms of their deep structure.
D)do not need to rely on mapping in their use of analogies.

Question 7

In general,a training procedure will promote subsequent analogy use if the procedure

A)helps participants to remember the exact formulation of the training problems.
B)focuses on the specific wording used to describe the problem.
C)encourages participants to pay attention to the training problem's deep structure.
D)teaches the participants general principles about how analogies function.

Question 8

Two groups of participants are given sets of training problems to solve.One group of participants is told to try to understand the structure of each problem,while the other group is asked to try to memorize the problems.They are later given test problems.Based on previous evidence,what results would you expect to see at testing?

A)The "memorize" group will be faster when solving the problems.
B)The "memorize" group will solve more problems.
C)The "structure" group will use analogies more often.
D)The groups will solve the same number of problems.

Question 9

Which of the following is a heuristic commonly used in problem solving?

A)functional fixedness
B)regression analysis
C)means-end analysis
D)local minimization

Question 10

Herbert solved the "tumor" problem by using an analogy with the "general and fortress" problem.In doing this,he realized that "tumor" corresponds to "fortress," "radiation" corresponds to "attacking army," and so on.The process of determining these correspondences is called

A)translating.
B)analogizing.
C)mapping.
D)parsing.

Question 11

Experts seem able to break a problem into meaningful chunks.This strategy provides all of the following advantages EXCEPT for

A)making it easier to remember the various elements of the problem.
B)highlighting the organization of the problem's elements,making it easier to see the problem's structure.
C)helping in the identification of subproblems and therefore in the creation of subgoals.
D)drawing the expert's attention to the problem's microstructure.

Question 12

All of the states one can reach in solving a problem together are said to make up the

A)operators.
B)pathways.
C)problem definition.
D)problem space.

Question 13

In order to teach students to be better problem solvers,we should do all of the following EXCEPT

A)teach some of the general-purpose heuristics such as means-end analysis.
B)teach students that it is better to memorize related problems rather than understand them.
C)provide students with experience in the relevant domains so that they will have a basis from which to draw analogies.
D)encourage students to approach their training with attention to deep structure rather than to surface details.

Question 14

In many studies,participants fail to use analogies as an aid to problem solving.Of the following,which is the most plausible explanation of this fact?

A)Participants do not understand the value of analogies,so they do not bother searching for them.
B)Participants search their memories based on the surface structure of the problem and thus fail to think of many useful analogies.
C)Participants pay too much attention to the deep structure of a problem,and so they fail to see the features that lead to analogy.
D)Participants seem unable to use analogies even when explicitly instructed to do so.

Question 15

Which of the following is NOT a benefit received from using a means-end analysis to solve a problem?

A)It highlights the differences between the current state and the goal state.
B)It often leads a person to break a problem into subproblems.
C)It can highlight what the next step in the problem solution should be.
D)It encourages the person to move away from the goal initially,so as to get to the goal faster.

Question 16

One plan for solving a problem would be to consider every possible option,searching for the best solution.This broad plan is

A)usually the best way to proceed for solving complicated problems.
B)more effective with ill-defined problems.
C)usually ruled out by the sheer number of possible states within the problem space.
D)often the only plan available.

Question 17

A problem-solving heuristic is

A)guaranteed to find a problem solution if one exists.
B)a strategy that guides a search through the problem space.
C)likely to be less effective than a strategy such as hill climbing or means-end analysis.
D)needed for unfamiliar problems but not for familiar problems.

Question 18

If you are trying to help a friend use analogies in problem solving,which piece of advice should you NOT give?

A)Attend to the deep structure of the problem.
B)Try to see the mapping between problems you already know and test problems.
C)Focus on exactly how the problem is phrased;this will often suggest what the problem solution will be.
D)Search your memory for content related to the deep structure of the problem,not surface details.

Question 19

Compared to novices,chess experts are more likely to have

A)better memory for the positions of pieces on a chessboard if the pieces are arranged in a fashion that respects the rules of chess.
B)better memory for the positions of pieces on a chessboard,no matter how the pieces are arranged.
C)better visual memory in general.
D)no memory advantage.

Question 20

Which problem-solving heuristic is most likely to involve a question such as "What do I have available to get from my current state to my goal state?"

A)working backward
B)means-end analysis
C)hill climbing
D)problem-solving set

Question 21

Which of the following problems is MOST ill-defined?

A)Sarah is trying to think of a way to impress her boss.
B)Susan is trying to decide which route to take to the soccer game.
C)Sheila cannot decide whether to go to a movie this evening or study in the library.
D)Samantha is having trouble solving a crossword puzzle.

Question 22

Which of the following is one reason why a creative person might be better able to problem-solve than a less creative person?

A)Creative people almost always "think outside of the box."
B)Creative people are more likely to step away from the problem and let their mind wander.
C)Creative people experience "Aha!" moments more often than less creative people.
D)Creative people tend to be experts in their respective domains.

Question 23

A problem-solving set

A)is generally a deterrent to problem solving,so one should seek to approach a problem without a set.
B)is an obstacle for novice problem solvers but not for experts.
C)is crucial for well-defined problems but cannot help with ill-defined problems.
D)often helps because the set leads us to ignore a number of options that obviously will not lead to the goal.

Question 24

The tendency to be rigid in how one thinks about an object's function is called

A)mental stickiness.
B)functional fixedness.
C)functional narrowness.
D)narrow focus.

Question 25

An ill-defined problem is one in which

A)there is more than one path available that will lead to the goal.
B)the problem does not have clearly defined subgoals.
C)neither analogies nor heuristics will lead to a problem solution.
D)the goal and the operations for reaching that goal are not clearly defined.

Question 26

Experts have an advantage in problem solving and remembering certain information (like the position of chess pieces)for all of the following reasons EXCEPT that they

A)think of units that can be used to set subgoals.
B)create higher-order units that have a purpose.
C)avoid getting bogged down in the details by organizing the information.
D)are more likely to try to use heuristics to problem-solve than novices.

Question 27

Bob works in marketing and wants to be creative at his work.Which of these is LEAST likely to be a prerequisite for his creativity?

A)having knowledge about his domain in marketing
B)being strongly motivated by external rewards rather than taking pleasure in his work
C)being able to ignore criticism and tolerate ambiguous findings
D)being willing to take risks and not follow the crowd

Question 28

Participants approach a problem with certain assumptions about how the problem should be handled and the sorts of strategies that are likely to be productive.These assumptions are referred to as

A)heuristics.
B)well-definedness.
C)a problem frame.
D)a problem-solving set.

Question 29

According to Wallas's theory of creativity,the initial period in which a problem solver gathers information is known as

A)verification.
B)incubation.
C)preparation.
D)initialization.

Question 30

Analogies are

A)often misleading,since an analogy depends on a problem's surface structure.
B)relatively ineffective for solving problems unless the problem is a familiar one.
C)an effective way to promote understanding and problem solving.
D)relevant only for a narrow set of problems.

Question 31

Dell,a problem-solving amateur,is trying to solve the "hobbits and orcs" problem,and so she must determine how to move the creatures across a river.Dell is most likely to be helped if she has had earlier experience with

A)a problem with a similar structure and which also involved hobbits and orcs.
B)a problem with the same structure,but which involved protecting wives from their jealous husbands.
C)other problems involving transportation across obstacles.
D)problems illustrating the techniques for dealing with river currents.

Question 32

Which of the following statements about creative people is most correct?

A)Creative people seem to be immune to problem-solving obstacles like functional fixedness.
B)Creative people have a cognitive architecture that is unlike the architecture for less creative people.
C)Creative people typically rely on the same strategies and processes as less creative people.
D)Creativity is typically associated with superior visual imagery.

Question 33

According to the text,current research indicates that creative problem solving

A)draws on mental processes that are distinct from the processes relevant to more ordinary problem solving.
B)can be interrupted by divergent thinking.
C)seems to draw on heuristics and analogies in the same way that ordinary problem solving does.
D)requires unconscious work that goes on after one has consciously put the problem to the side.

Question 34

Studies of analogy use indicate that participants

A)use analogies spontaneously in a wide range of problems.
B)use analogies only if they are experts in the domain of the problem.
C)are more likely to use analogies if there is a superficial resemblance between the problem being solved and the problem serving as the base for the analogy.
D)are more likely to use analogies in solving spatial problems than they are in solving verbal problems.

Question 35

One way to turn an ill-defined question into a well-defined question is to

A)add extra constraints or assumptions to the problem so that it has more structure.
B)make the question less specific.
C)make the question rhetorical.
D)remove any clear or concrete goal state from the problem.

Question 36

Eric is trying to solve a problem but has to interrupt his work on the problem in order to attend a meeting.After the meeting,he returns to the problem and immediately solves it.Which of the following is the LEAST likely explanation of Eric's revelation?

A)Eric had approached the problem without a problem-solving set,and the time he spent in the meeting provided an incubation period during which he developed a set.
B)The meeting distracted Eric from the problem,causing him to forget his previous strategies,and therefore allowed him to find a fresh approach to the problem.
C)Eric had grown frustrated with the problem,and the frustration was making it hard for him to think productively.The meeting allowed his frustration to fade,so that he was more effective in his efforts after the meeting.
D)The interruption had no effect on Eric's problem solving;he simply needed a bit more time to figure out the problem,and his return to the problem after the meeting provided that extra time.

Question 37

Many years ago,Wallas argued that creative thought proceeds through four stages.Which of the following is NOT one of these stages?

A)illumination
B)articulation
C)preparation
D)incubation

Question 38

As Vanessa worked on the problem,she narrated her progress out loud,saying things like "No,that option doesn't seem to work.No,that doesn't work either." Then Vanessa abruptly shouted,"I think I've got it!" These reports seem to capture the phenomenon called

A)illumination.
B)incubation.
C)preparation.
D)representation.

Question 39

It was starting to rain,and Marcus did not have an umbrella or a hat.To keep dry,he held his psychology textbook over his head.In this case,Marcus

A)has solved the problem using the hill-climbing heuristic.
B)has solved the problem by using functional fixedness.
C)has managed to overcome functional fixedness.
D)has better defined his problem-solving set.

Question 40

________ is an ability to think about concepts/ideas in a new way.________ is an ability to see ways in which seemingly different concepts/ideas might be related.

A)Divergent thinking;Convergent thinking
B)Convergent thinking;Divergent thinking
C)Creativity;Convergent thinking
D)Illumination;Mapping

Question 41

Most modern researchers believe that intelligence can be understood in terms of

A)a quadratic function.
B)overlapping clusters of specialized forms of intelligence.
C)a hierarchical structure.
D)a set of distinct abilities,each independent of the others.

Question 42

Sam has scored very high on an IQ test.Which of the following is also likely to be true of Sam?

A)Sam will also score high on a test of emotional intelligence.
B)Sam will spend more time deciding whether a tone is low- or high-pitched than someone with a lower IQ score would.
C)Sam will also score high on a test of working memory capacity.
D)Sam is likely to be less creative than someone with a lower IQ score.

Question 43

A group of people is given a new test that supposedly measures creativity.We later find that their scores on this test are,in fact,correlated with their ability to do well on a separate test requiring "out of the box" solutions.This finding suggests that this test of creativity appears to have relatively high

A)accuracy.
B)test-retest reliability.
C)predictive validity.
D)reliability and validity.

Question 44

The gradual increase in IQ scores around the world over the past few decades is referred to as the

A)Columbus Consequence.
B)Gardner Theory.
C)Flynn effect.
D)global IQ shift.

Question 45

Reliability refers to the extent to which a measure is ________,and validity refers to whether a measure is ________.

A)consistent;accurately measuring what it is supposed to measure
B)accurate;consistently measuring what it is supposed to measure
C)correlated with other measures;able to predict related outcomes
D)consistently able to predict related outcomes;accurate

Question 46

________ intelligence refers to an ability to think about novel problems,while ________ intelligence refers to acquired knowledge and skills.

A)General;specific
B)Crystallized;fluid
C)Fluid;crystallized
D)General;learned

Question 47

People have considered various hypotheses for why there is a difference between the average IQ scores for American Whites and African Americans.Which of the following is NOT an explanation that is supported by evidence?

A)Genetic factors give White Americans an advantage on the test.
B)Economic factors lead to higher IQ scores among White Americans than Black Americans.
C)Stereotype threat causes Black students in America to score lower on intelligence tests.
D)IQ scores among Black Americans can be improved by reducing stereotype threat.

Question 48

Melissa is a 35-year-old woman.Over the next few decades,her ________ intelligence will likely increase,while her ________ intelligence will likely decrease.

A)crystallized;memory
B)crystallized;fluid
C)fluid;crystallized
D)reasoning ability;vocabulary

Question 49

Mark scored very well on one portion of the IQ test.Evidence suggests that

A)he will likely do less well on other portions of the test.
B)he is likely to do well on the entire test.
C)we can make no predictions about whether he'll do well on other portions of the test.
D)he will score similarly if he takes other portions of the test today,but his score will likely be very different if he takes the test in a few months.

Question 50

In some procedures,participants are helped by an interruption during their attempts at solving a problem.In explaining this effect,which of the following hypotheses seems LEAST plausible in light of the available evidence?

A)The interruption provides an opportunity for participants to gather further information about the problem.
B)The interruption provides an opportunity for frustration or fatigue to dissipate.
C)The interruption allows participants to forget their earlier approaches to the problem,thus enabling a fresh start.
D)The interruption allows an opportunity for participants to use means-end analysis to solve the problem.

Question 51

Researchers have tried to study the moment of illumination in the laboratory.The evidence indicates that

A)this experience cannot be observed reliably in laboratory conditions.
B)there is no systematic relationship between reports of illumination and actual progress in problem solving.
C)when participants report an illumination,they are at least as likely to be moving toward a dead end as they are to be moving toward the problem's solution.
D)when participants report an illumination,they have,in fact,made a discovery that will allow them to solve the problem.

Question 52

Which of the following is evidence that is most consistent with Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences?

A)Some people with very low IQ scores nevertheless have specific,extreme talents.
B)IQ scores can be influenced by environmental factors (e.g. ,where someone grew up).
C)People who score high on IQ tests also seem to be more emotionally intelligent.
D)IQ scores can be influenced by personal beliefs (e.g. ,endorsement of stereotypes).

Question 53

Your friend sets a New Year's resolution to "be happier." Your friend is struggling with the problem,though,of how to achieve this goal.Using the appropriate terminology,explain what kind of problem this is,and how,according to the chapter,your friend might go about solving it.

Question 54

According to the textbook,which of the following is a type of intelligence that is NOT measured by conventional IQ tests?

A)general intelligence
B)spatial intelligence
C)logical-mathematical intelligence
D)emotional intelligence

Question 55

Describe two of the strategies for problem solving that were included in the chapter.Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each approach.

Question 56

A group of participants is interrupted while working on a problem.The participants then spend some time on an unrelated task and,finally,return to the initial problem.Studies of this sort generally show that the

A)participants will benefit from the interruption and are more likely to solve the problem when they return to it.
B)participants will be disrupted by the interruption and are less likely to solve the problem when they return to it.
C)participants will not be affected by the interruption.
D)data are mixed,with some studies showing a benefit from the interruption but with many studies showing no effect.

Question 57

Which of the following statements does NOT support the notion that the environment influences intelligence scores?

A)Thinking about a stereotype pertaining to one's group (e.g. ,gender,race)can influence how well someone does on an IQ test.
B)IQs are more similar among monozygotic twins than among dizygotic twins.
C)IQs are lower overall among children who come from impoverished environments.
D)Changing the environment can lead to an improvement in IQ score.

Question 58

Dr.Jean Yuss has created a new test that she claims can measure intelligence with only 15 questions.Dr.Yuss administers this test to Alex three times,and each time Alex scores only 35% on the test.Other tests of intelligence,however,suggest that Alex is quite intelligent.Which of the following is most likely true of this new test?

A)The test is not a reliable measure of intelligence,but it is a valid measure.
B)The test may be a reliable measure of intelligence,but seems not to be a valid measure.
C)The test is both a reliable measure of intelligence and a valid measure.
D)The test is neither a reliable measure of intelligence nor a valid measure.

Question 59

Why might someone's working memory capacity (WMC)contribute toward general intelligence?

A)People with greater WMC seem to have greater processing speeds.
B)People with greater WMC seem better able to inhibit irrelevant thoughts and stay focused on a particular task.
C)People with less WMC cannot judge the accuracy of their thoughts/memories,so they do not know what they still have left to learn.
D)People with greater WMC exhibit longer inspection times because they can hold more information in mind at once.

Question 60

Which of the following would be a reason to use Raven's Progressive Matrices instead of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale to measure the intelligence of an individual?

A)The participant is not a native English speaker.
B)The participant has low spatial ability.
C)The participant is already known to be quite intelligent.
D)The participant has never taken an intelligence test before.

Question 61

What is meant by the terms "reliability" and "validity"? What evidence helps us understand whether intelligence tests are reliable? What evidence helps us understand whether the tests are valid?

Question 62

Some theorists propose that problem solving (especially creative solving)proceeds through four stages.What are the four stages? What evidence supports or challenges claims about these four stages?

Question 63

What is the difference between the fluid and crystallized types of intelligence? How does each change across the lifetime? What factors influence each type of intelligence?

Question 64

Describe the circumstances under which people who are not experts do and do not make use of analogies when attempting to solve a problem.Explain what prevents people from using analogies to solve problems even when an analogous situation has been recently encountered.

Question 65

Consider the examples of autistic savants that were described at the beginning of the chapter.Given what you know now,how would you characterize their intellectual abilities? Make sure you use the appropriate terminology in your answer.

Question 66

How are experts different from novices when it comes to solving problems? How might expertise help with problem solving?

Question 67

Jim and John are monozygotic twins who grew up in the same household.Lauren and Lucas are dizygotic twins who also grew up in the same household.Sally and Sarah are monozygotic twins who grew up in different households.Describe how these three sets of twins will differ genetically and how they will likely differ in terms of intelligence.

Question 68

Describe the genetic and environmental factors that influence intelligence.Why is it a mistake to ask,"How much of your intelligence comes from genes,and how much from the environment?"