Deck 14: Generalization

Question 1

In attempting to study police officers' attitudes toward their supervisors, Alex surveys 25 police officers working in the day shift. In this case, what can help Alex ensure that his findings have external validity?

A)Using a larger sample of officers working in the day shift
B)Randomly assigning officers to work under specific supervisors
C)Surveying officers from all shifts in the department
D)Using confounding variables

Answer 1

C

Question 2

How would a study aimed at examining college students' attitudes toward tuition increases demonstrate external validity?

A)Sampling only students enrolled at colleges that have not raised tuition
B)Lowering tuition for one semester and raising tuition the next semester
C)Focusing on the difference in attitudes between students who have experienced tuition increases and students who have not
D)Showing that the results apply to college students from other universities

Answer 2

D

Question 3

One solution to the problem of generalizing to other experimenters is to use _____.

A)two or more experimenters
B)a field experimental technique
C)computers to test participants
D)quasi-experiments

Answer 3

A

Question 4

Compared to the general population, college students tend to have _____.

A)a well-developed sense of self-identity
B)a low need for peer approval
C)low cognitive skills
D)unstable peer relationships

Question 5

Which of the following statements is true about pretests?

A)One drawback of a pretest is that it fails to provide a researcher with an assessment of the attrition effects.
B)A pretest acts as a hindrance when determining whether the people who withdrew are different from those who completed the study.
C)It is often a misconception that simply taking a pretest may cause subjects to behave differently than they would without the pretest.
D)Pretesting may limit the ability to generalize to populations that did not receive a pretest.

Question 6

Dr. Paul found that college students between the ages of 18 and 23 performed better on a cognitive task in a low-noise condition than in a high-noise condition. Dr. Ben wants to repeat Dr. Paul's study by adding age as a variable-18-23 and 65-74. He predicts an interaction between the age and noise variables. In this case, Dr. Ben is questioning the _____ validity of the original study.

A)statistical
B)external
C)internal
D)interactional

Question 7

Which of the following statements about research conducted with nonhuman animals is true?

A)More than 50 percent of psychological research is conducted with nonhuman animals.
B)The studies conducted on nonhumans are not of much value because the research does not apply to human biological or behavioral patterns.
C)The applications of research conducted with nonhuman animals include sexual behavior, choice behavior, and drug addictions.
D)Most research with other species is not focused on gathering information that may help with the survival of endangered species.

Question 8

Using the Internet for research may lower the external validity of a study because users are more likely to share similar characteristics. In this case, volunteers of online surveys are likely to:

A)be college educated.
B)have a lower income.
C)live in rural areas.
D)be older adults.

Question 9

What is most likely to be true of a study conducted on a group of males to analyze the effects of room temperature on task performance?

A)The study has high external validity.
B)Temperature does not affect men's task performance.
C)The findings of the study cannot be generalized to females.
D)Task performance is a confounding variable in the study.

Question 10

Which of the following is likely to improve the external validity of a research study?

A)Being sure that all participants have the same ethnic background
B)Including groups from various cultures
C)Using only first year students and sophomores as participants
D)Employing only one type of experimenter

Question 11

According to Rosenthal and Rosnow, when compared to nonvolunteers, volunteers tend to be:

A)highly educated.
B)of a lower socioeconomic status.
C)less in need of approval.
D)more unsociable.

Question 12

When the results of a study can be generalized to other subject populations, the study is said to have _____ validity.

A)statistical
B)internal
C)external
D)construct

Question 13

Neil conducted a study on a group of women that involved them viewing cartoons for an hour under one of two environmental conditions-either alone or with other participants. After the study, the participants rated how much they enjoyed the time spent watching the cartoons. What can be concluded based on the results of this study?

A)Men enjoy viewing cartoons more in the presence of others.
B)Women enjoy watching cartoons more than men.
C)The study has high external validity.
D)The results of the study cannot be generalized to males.

Question 14

In studies that require human participants, the most common population studied consists of _____.

A)older people
B)children
C)college students
D)psychiatric patients

Question 15

A consumer research firm is hired to determine which brand of laundry soap is most preferred by consumers. After surveying a sample of housewives, they find that the most preferred brand is White Suds. Which of the following is the greatest threat to external validity in this study?

A)Consumers' lack of interest in laundry products
B)The absence of difference in laundry soaps between manufacturers
C)The stereotypical assumption that only women do laundry
D)Including both males and females in research investigations

Question 16

The use of only college students, volunteers, or participants from one locale _____ the _____ validity of a study.

A)enhances; internal
B)weakens; external
C)enhances; external
D)weakens; internal

Question 17

_____ validity is the extent to which findings may be generalized, while _____ validity refers to the ability to infer that there is a causal relationship between variables.

A)Construct; statistical
B)Statistical; construct
C)Internal; external
D)External; internal

Question 18

A valid criticism of the use of college students in a particular study would include:

A)reasons that the study's effects could not be found in other groups.
B)reasons for changing the procedure to accommodate other variables.
C)references to the ways to eliminate demand characteristics found in the study.
D)references to previous studies conducted using the same variables.

Question 19

What refers to external validity?

A)Adequacy of the experimental design
B)Effectiveness of the manipulation of the independent variable
C)Generalizability of the research findings
D)Practical application of the research findings

Question 20

The presence of an interaction between the gender and age of participants in a study indicates that:

A)the results of the study are accurately interpreted.
B)age is a more important variable than gender.
C)the results for males cannot be generalized to females.
D)there is no relationship between age and gender.

Question 21

One way to increase one's knowledge of generalization to other subject populations is to:

A)avoid including variables like gender, age, or ethnic group in the experimental design.
B)use relevant and appropriate subject type variables in the experimental design.
C)use volunteers only.
D)prohibit research on animals.

Question 22

Conceptual replications allow a researcher to:

A)replicate precisely the procedures of a study to see whether the same results are obtained.
B)point out inconsistent findings and areas in which research is lacking.
C)have greater confidence in the generalizability of relationships between variables if they produce similar results.
D)identify trends in the literature and provide directions for future study.

Question 23

A _____ design can be used in situations in which a pretest is desirable but there is concern over the possible impact of taking the pretest.

A)before/after
B)pretest-posttest
C)Solomon four-group
D)counterbalanced

Question 24

Identify the risk associated with pretests.

A)A pretest does not necessarily enable a researcher to assess mortality effects.
B)A pretest does not accurately depict whether the people who withdrew were any different from those who completed the study.
C)A pretest tends to induce subjects to behave differently than they would without the pretest.
D)A pretest fails to provide accurate scores, although intuitively pretesting seems like a good idea.

Question 25

Failures to replicate findings share the same problems as _____.

A)nonsignificant findings
B)actual findings
C)Type I errors
D)Type II errors

Question 26

A researcher replicates a past study that manipulates the physical attractiveness of a defendant by using photographs instead of written descriptions. This technique would be an example of _____ replication.

A)procedural
B)abstract
C)exact
D)conceptual

Question 27

When findings are replicated using _____, one's confidence in the generalizability of the findings _____.

A)college students; decreases
B)statistical interactions; increases
C)pretests; decreases
D)multiple methods; increases

Question 28

Research on the results of laboratory and field experiments that examine the same variables suggests that:

A)the effect size of the independent variable on the dependent variable is very similar.
B)the impact of the independent variable on the dependent variable is marked by dissimilarity.
C)independent variables in field experiments must be manipulated differently from laboratory experiments.
D)these experiments must be conducted in similar settings for the results to be complementary.

Question 29

A(n) _____ replication is an attempt to replicate precisely the procedures of a study to see whether the same results are obtained.

A)abstract
B)conceptual
C)exact
D)procedural

Question 30

Which of the following statements is least likely to be correct about the results of laboratory and field experiments that examine the same variables?

A)Both tend to produce the same results.
B)The effect size of the independent variable on the dependent variable is very similar in the two types of studies.
C)Laboratory and field experiments should be considered in isolation.
D)The results tend to be complementary rather than contradictory.

Question 31

Which of the following is true of exact replications?

A)An exact replication is the use of different procedures to replicate a research finding.
B)Exact replications are even more important than conceptual replications in furthering one's understanding of behavior.
C)In exact replications, the same independent variable is operationalized in a different way.
D)Exact replications often occur when a researcher builds on the findings of a prior study.

Question 32

The use of different procedures to replicate a research finding is called a(n) _____ replication.

A)exact
B)procedural
C)conceptual
D)abstract

Question 33

Identify the type of replication that plays an important part in furthering one's understanding of behavior.

A)Constructive replication
B)Conceptual replication
C)Exact replication
D)Procedural replication

Question 34

One way to assess whether pretesting creates a generalization problem is to:

A)use simple random sampling rather than purposive sampling.
B)conduct the same experiment with and without the pretest.
C)ask participants whether the pretests were a problem.
D)use a double-blind technique.

Question 35

Why are conceptual replications considered important in the field of social sciences?

A)They allow statistical conclusions and identify trends in the literature.
B)They take into consideration the fact that prior findings are a prerequisite for conceptual replications to occur.
C)They allow researchers to precisely replicate the procedures of a study to see whether the same results are obtained.
D)They use complex variables that can be operationalized in different ways.

Question 36

Which of the following in a study is most likely to produce better external validity?

A)Using a random sample
B)Employing nonequivalent groups
C)Including only male subjects
D)Having a single experimenter

Question 37

_____ of results is a way of overcoming the problems of generalization that occur in a single study.

A)Renormalization
B)Randomization
C)Revaluation
D)Replication

Question 38

The "Mozart effect" provides an interesting example of the importance of _____.

A)replications
B)statistical interactions
C)meta-analysis
D)interactions

Question 39

What does a Solomon four-group design assess?

A)The impact of taking the pretest
B)The significance of a simple factorial design
C)The limits of external validity of a study
D)The impact of independent variables under highly controlled settings

Question 40

Which of the following is true of conceptual replications?

A)They are an attempt to replicate precisely the procedures of a study to see whether the same results are obtained.
B)They occur when a researcher builds on the findings of a prior study.
C)They are not important in the social sciences because the variables used cannot be operationalized in different ways.
D)They are more important than exact replications in furthering one's understanding of behavior.

Question 41

In the original Mozart effect study, researchers examined the effect of exposure to classical music on spatial reasoning. In this case, exposure to classical music and spatial reasoning are examples of _____ variables.

A)concrete
B)conceptual
C)confounded
D)concurrent

Question 42

Which of the following would a researcher be least likely to do when conducting a literature review?

A)A researcher is least likely to indicate what findings are both strongly and weakly supported in the literature.
B)A researcher is least likely to discuss future directions for research.
C)A researcher is least likely to calculate an effect size for all the studies reviewed.
D)A researcher is least likely to indicate inconsistencies and areas in which research is lacking.

Question 43

A _____ identifies trends in the literature, whereas a(n) _____ allows statistical, quantitative conclusions about the research.

A)conceptual replication; narrative literature review
B)narrative literature review; meta-analysis
C)meta-analysis; exact replication
D)meta-analysis; conceptual replication

Question 44

A failure to replicate could mean that the:

A)original results are invalid.
B)replication attempt is flawless.
C)research findings are generalizable.
D)experimenter is unbiased.

Question 45

Which of the following is a common feature of literature reviews and meta-analyses?

A)Both literature reviews and meta-analyses identify trends in the literature and directions for future study.
B)Both literature reviews and meta-analyses allow quantitative conclusions.
C)Both literature reviews and meta-analyses allow statistical conclusions.
D)Both literature reviews and meta-analyses begin with a body of previous research.

Question 46

In a _____, the researcher combines the actual results of a number of studies in which the analysis consists of a set of statistical procedures that employ effect sizes to compare a given finding across many different studies.

A)combined assignment
B)field experiment
C)literature review
D)meta-analysis

Question 47

Which of the following is a fact about replications?

A)There are two types of replications to consider-descriptive and inferential replications.
B)Replication is a way of evaluating the external validity of research studies.
C)A single failure to replicate is sufficient to conclude that the previous research is invalid.
D)Scientific societies are encouraging systematic replications of important scientific findings.

Question 48

Which of the following best represents a meta-analysis?

A)Miller and Downey's (1999) work analyzing the results of 71 studies that examined the relationship between weight and self-esteem
B)The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association
C)A study on the impact of conversation on driving by Drews and his colleagues (2008)
D)Smart's (1966) research that found that college students were studied in over 70 percent of the articles published between 1962 and 1964

Question 49

A factor that differentiates a meta-analysis from a narrative literature review is that a meta-analysis:

A)focuses on effect size.
B)is more subjective.
C)summarizes what has been found.
D)is less accurate.

Question 50

Which of the following is true of a meta-analysis when evaluating generalizations?

A)In a meta-analysis, a reviewer writes a paper that summarizes and evaluates the literature.
B)Researchers traditionally draw conclusions about the external validity of research findings by conducting a meta-analysis.
C)Meta-analysis is a method for determining the reliability of a finding by examining the results from many different studies.
D)The conclusions in a meta-analysis are based on the subjective impressions of the reviewer.

Question 51

In _____ replications, researchers attempt to understand the relationships among abstract variables by using new, or different, operational definitions of those variables.

A)strategic
B)conceptual
C)procedural
D)exact

Question 52

Meta-analysis consists of a set of statistical procedures that employ _____ to compare a given finding across many different studies.

A)exact replications
B)statistical interactions
C)conceptual replications
D)effect sizes

Question 53

Which of the following are ways by which researchers draw conclusions about the external validity of research findings?

A)Literature reviews and meta-analyses
B)Conceptual and exact replications
C)Cross-sectional and longitudinal research designs
D)One-tailed tests and structural equation models

Question 54

What are the two types of replications?

A)Procedural and exact replications
B)Conceptual and strategic replications
C)Exact and conceptual replications
D)Strategic and procedural replications

Question 55

Dr. Harrison used a statistical procedure to analyze the findings of 105 studies on the effects of exercise on mood. Identify the technique employed by him.

A)Meta-analysis
B)Analysis of variance
C)Literature review
D)Causal analysis

Question 56

According to the American Psychological Association, a literature review does all of the following EXCEPT:

A)summarizing what has been found.
B)informing the reader about the findings that are strongly supported.
C)pointing out inconsistent findings.
D)analyzing data from several reported studies.

Question 57

Which of the following is true of a narrative literature review when evaluating generalizations?

A)The conclusions in a narrative literature review are based on the subjective impressions of the reviewer.
B)In a narrative literature review, the researcher combines the actual results of a number of studies.
C)A narrative literature review allows statistical, quantitative conclusions.
D)A narrative literature review can lead to clear conclusions by focusing on effect size.

Question 58

Elaine has read a number of studies on the effect of physical attractiveness on the judgment of an individual's personality characteristics. She then writes a paper in which she categorizes the findings and draws conclusions based on her summaries of the studies. Elaine has most likely conducted a _____.

A)categorization analysis
B)meta-analysis
C)literature review
D)meta-categorization

Question 59

An alternative to traditional literature reviews for drawing conclusions about a research area is _____.

A)science citation analysis
B)critical theory
C)meta-analysis
D)conceptual replication

Question 60

To examine the effects of drug therapy on depression, Mark located 45 studies using drug therapy with adults diagnosed with depression. Studies that included other additional treatments were excluded. He performed a statistical analysis of the results of these studies and concluded that drug therapy was effective in treating depression. In this case, Mark has conducted a _____.

A)literature review
B)meta-analysis
C)statistical review
D)causal analysis

Question 61

Which of the following statements accurately describes literature reviews and meta-analyses?

A)A narrative review allows statistical, quantitative conclusions, whereas a meta-analysis provides directions for future study.
B)Unlike a traditional literature review, a meta-analysis begins with a body of previous research on a topic.
C)Both narrative reviews and meta-analyses provide valuable information and are, in fact, often complementary.
D)Without conducting a meta-analysis, a background in meta-analysis alone is not beneficial when reviewing research findings.

Question 62

Which statement reflects the finding of the study conducted by Bushman and Wells (2001) on narrative reviews and meta-analyses?

A)Knowledge of meta-analysis can improve the way that one interprets information for literature reviews.
B)In a meta-analysis, it is difficult to provide the type of general conclusion that can be reached with the traditional literature review.
C)By organizing and evaluating previously published material, authors of literature reviews consider the progress of research toward clarifying a problem.
D)The conclusions in meta-analyses and literature reviews are based on the objective impressions of the reviewer.