Deck 1: Section 1: Introduction and Research Methods

Question 1

Who was Sigmund Freud, and what were the basic ideas of the school of psychological thought that he founded?

Answer 1

The answer should include the following information: Sigmund Freud, a physician from Vienna, Austria, developed a theory of personality based on uncovering causes of behavior that were unconscious, or hidden from the person's conscious awareness. Freud's school of thought, called psychoanalysis, emphasized the role of unconscious conflicts in determining behavior and personality. Freud was trained as a neurologist, but his thinking was strongly influenced by developments in psychology. Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality and behavior was based largely on his work with his patients and on insights derived from self-analysis. Freud believed that human behavior was motivated by unconscious conflicts that were almost always sexual or aggressive in nature. Past experiences, especially those from childhood, were thought to be critical in the formation of adult personality and behavior. According to Freud, glimpses of these unconscious impulses are revealed in everyday life in dreams, memory blocks, slips of the tongue, and spontaneous humor. Freud believed that when unconscious conflicts became overwhelming, psychological disorders could result.

Question 2

What contributions did Mary Whiton Calkins and Margaret Floy Washburn make to psychology?

Answer 2

The answer should include the following information: Mary Calkins studied with William James. She completed all the requirements for a Ph.D. in psychology. However, Harvard refused to grant her the Ph.D. degree because she was a woman, and at the time Harvard was not a coeducational institution. Nonetheless, Calkins made many contributions to psychology. She conducted research in dreams, memory, and personality. In 1891, she established a psychology laboratory at Wellesley College and wrote a well-regarded textbook titled Introduction to Psychology. In 1905, she was elected president of the American Psychological Association-the first woman, but not the last, to hold that position. Margaret Floy Washburn was the first American woman to earn an official Ph.D. in psychology. She was Edward Titchener's first doctoral student at Cornell University. She strongly advocated the scientific study of the mental processes of different animal species, and she published an influential textbook in 1908 titled The Animal Mind. She became the second woman elected president of the American Psychological Association.

Question 3

What strategies do pseudosciences often use in promoting their claims?

Answer 3

The answer should include the following information: First, they will use testimonials rather than scientific evidence. Second, they will use scientific jargon that lacks any real substance. Third, pseudoscientists will combine established scientific knowledge with unfounded claims to promote their agenda. Fourth, they will make irrefutable or nonfalsifiable claims. Fifth, scientific conclusions are based on converging evidence from multiple studies, not a single study. Pseudoscientists ignore this process and will instead focus on the findings of a single study that supports their claims. They will exclude other studies that contradict, or that are not consistent with, their agenda. Sixth, when challenged, pseudoscientists will shift the burden of proof to the skeptic, challenging the skeptic to disprove their claim. Finally, when pseudoscience fails to deliver, these individuals offer multiple excuses to explain why their approach or product did not work.

Question 4

How is a theory different from a hypothesis?

Question 5

Discuss Charles Darwin's influence on William James and explain how Darwin's theory of evolution contributed to psychology.

Question 6

Summarize the assumptions and attitudes that are held by psychologists.

Question 7

Evolutionary theory is based on the principle of natural selection. How does the evolutionary perspective relate to our understanding of human thought and behavior?

Question 8

List and describe the eight major perspectives in contemporary psychology described in the text. Be sure to address how each perspective differs in emphasis and approach.

Question 9

Contrast the behavioral perspective with the cognitive perspective.

Question 10

List the steps in the scientific method.

Question 11

Compare and contrast psychoanalysis and behaviorism.

Question 12

What roles did philosophy and physiology play in the development of psychology as an independent science?

Question 13

How did Wilhelm Wundt and William James differ in their views of what psychology should study?

Question 14

How do clinical psychologists differ from psychiatrists, and how are they similar?

Question 15

Discuss the achievements and contributions of Francis C. Sumner.

Question 16

Which perspective in contemporary psychology was influenced by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow? What does this perspective focus on?

Question 17

What roles did Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B. F. Skinner play in the founding of behaviorism?

Question 18

What is humanistic psychology, and who introduced this approach?

Question 19

Why is it important for psychologists to report their research findings?

Question 20

How do individualistic cultures differ from collectivistic cultures?

Question 21

What is the difference between a positive correlation and a negative correlation? Give an example of each.

Question 22

Professor Rahn is conducting a study on the effects of caffeine on college students' study habits. His research question is: Will students who consume moderate doses of caffeine prior to studying perform better on an exam than students who do not consume any caffeine prior to studying? Professor Rahn randomly assigns students to one of two groups: One group is given two caffeinated beverages prior to studying, and the second group is given beverages without caffeine. Both groups of students believe they are consuming caffeinated beverages. According to research on experimental controls, what is the second group of participants receiving?

Question 23

What is a natural experiment, and how does it differ from other research methods?

Question 24

What is the difference between the independent variable and the dependent variable?

Question 25

In a scientifically conducted survey, describe how participants should be selected and explain the importance of the selection process.

Question 26

What are some of the reasons that psychologists use animals in research?

Question 27

Your best friend is having difficulty in his Introduction to Psychology course. He scores low on tests and quizzes and wants to know how he can bring up his grade. According to Psych for Your Life, what are six research-based suggestions that will help your friend improve his performance in class?

Question 28

What do correlational studies examine, and what conclusions can be drawn from a correlational study?

Question 29

Describe the research method of naturalistic observation, and note some of its advantages.

Question 30

Give an example of two factors that are positively correlated, and explain what that means.

Question 31

As a critical thinker, it is important to follow four steps when determining the validity of a particular claim presented in a research study. List the four steps.

Question 32

Describe at least three of the APA ethical guidelines.

Question 33

Compare and contrast the naturalistic observation method and the case study method.

Question 34

Describe three commonly used brain-imaging techniques that are commonly used in psychological research.