Exam 1: Section 1: Introduction and Research Methods

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The answer should include the following information: Many people think that psychologists and psychiatrists are the same profession and undergo the same training. However, this assumption is not correct. Psychologists who specialize in clinical psychology are trained in the diagnosis, treatment, causes, and prevention of psychological disorders, leading to a doctorate in clinical psychology-a Ph.D. On the other hand, psychiatry is a medical degree either an M.D. or D.O., followed by several years of specialized training in the treatment of mental disorders. Psychiatrists can hospitalize people, order biomedical therapies, and prescribe medications for individuals. Generally speaking, clinical psychologists cannot order medical treatments or prescribe medications. However, in a few states, laws have been passed that allow clinical psychologists to prescribe medications following specialized training.

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The answer should include the following information: Behaviorism grew out of the pioneering work of Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov showed that dogs could learn to associate a neutral stimulus such as the sound of a bell with an automatic behavior, such as reflexively salivating to food. Once an association between the sound of the bell and the food was formed, the sound of the bell alone would trigger the salivation reflex in the dog. Pavlov believed he had discovered the mechanism by which all behaviors were learned. John B. Watson shared Pavlov's enthusiasm and championed behaviorism as a new school of thought for psychology. He believed that how behavior is acquired and modified in response to environmental influences is essential to the understanding of psychology. B. F. Skinner extended the ideas of Watson, believing that psychology should restrict itself to studying overt, observable behaviors that could be measured and verified. Skinner systematically used reinforcement or punishment to shape the behavior of rats and pigeons.

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The answer should include the following information: First, they will use testimonials rather than scientific evidence. Second, they will use scientific jargon that lacks any real substance. Third, pseudoscientists will combine established scientific knowledge with unfounded claims to promote their agenda. Fourth, they will make irrefutable or nonfalsifiable claims. Fifth, scientific conclusions are based on converging evidence from multiple studies, not a single study. Pseudoscientists ignore this process and will instead focus on the findings of a single study that supports their claims. They will exclude other studies that contradict, or that are not consistent with, their agenda. Sixth, when challenged, pseudoscientists will shift the burden of proof to the skeptic, challenging the skeptic to disprove their claim. Finally, when pseudoscience fails to deliver, these individuals offer multiple excuses to explain why their approach or product did not work.