Deck 9: Correlational Research

Question 1

In his 1957 "two disciplines" address, Cronbach called for a united discipline of psychology, one that would conduct research in the spirit of which of the designs from Chapter 8?

A) nonequivalent groups designs
B) mixed factorial designs
C) P x E factorial designs
D) repeated-measures designs

Answer 1

P x E factorial designs

Question 2

Which of the following correlations shows the weakest relationship?

A) +.23
B) +.07
C) -.09
D) -.99

Answer 2

+.07

Question 3

Picture a regression line as a diagonal line running from the lower left to the top right on a scatterplot. For which of the following correlations would the points be closest to this regression line?

A) -.90
B) -.30
C) +.40
D) +.70

Answer 3

+.70

Question 4

When examining how certain traits tended to run in families, Galton organized his data into a chart that was in effect the first

A) scatterplot
B) bar graph
C) line graph
D) frequency distribution

Question 5

In order for a Pearson's r to reflect a meaningful relationship, which of the following must be true?

A) the relationship must be nonlinear
B) the variables must be measured on at least an ordinal scale
C) the range of scores must be restricted on at least one of the variables
D) the variables must be measured on either an interval or a ratio scale

Question 6

In his 1957 APA presidential address, Cronbach identified what he called psychology's two disciplines:

A) personality psychology and social psychology
B) experimental psychology and clinical psychology
C) experimental psychology and correlational psychology
D) clinical psychology and experimental psychology

Question 7

In order for Pearson's r to be calculated,

A) both variables must be measured on a ratio scale
B) the relationship must be a linear one
C) at least one of the variables must have a restricted range
D) the variables must be measured on at least an ordinal scale

Question 8

Galton uncovered the basic features of a correlational approach in his efforts to show that genius was inherited. His work included all of the following except

A) a scatterplot
B) the phenomenon of regression to the mean
C) a formula for calculating precise correlations
D) a regression line

Question 9

In his 1957 "two disciplines" address, Cronbach identified correlational psychology with

A) a desire to control individual differences, in order to discover general laws of behavior
B) a desire to investigate relationships between naturally-occurring variables
C) an attempt to identify general laws that apply to everyone
D) experimental psychology; he did not believe that experimental and correlational research were truly different

Question 10

Which of the following would be most likely to produce a negative correlation?

A) the relationship between college grades and parents' IQ
B) the relationship between college grades and total TV watching time
C) the relationship between college grades and high school grades
D) the relationship between college grades and time spent in library

Question 11

One of psychology's better known findings is that performance is good at moderate levels of arousal and poor at both high and low levels of arousal (Yerkes-Dodson). Which of the following is true?

A) the strength of this relationship can best be assessed with Pearson's r
B) this is an example of a positive linear correlation
C) this is an example of a negative linear correlation
D) a Pearson's r for this relationship would be close to zero

Question 12

A regression line for a correlation of -1.00 would

A) be parallel to the X-axis
B) be parallel to the Y-axis
C) higher for low values on the X-axis than for high values on the X-axis
D) higher for high values on the X-axis than for low values on the X-axis

Question 13

The correlation between verbal SAT scores (maximum score = 800) and freshman GPA will be lowest at a school

A) with an open enrollment policy
B) that only accepts students with a minimum of 400 on the verbal SAT
C) that only accepts students with a minimum of 500 on the verbal SAT
D) that only accepts students with a minimum of 600 on the verbal SAT

Question 14

In order for a Pearson's r to reflect a meaningful relationship, which of the following must be true?

A) the relationship must be linear
B) the relationship must be nonlinear
C) the relationship must be inverse
D) the relationship must be a positive one

Question 15

John Stuart Mill's method of ________ is essentially the same as the correlational method.

A) agreement and difference (combined)
B) difference
C) agreement
D) concomitant variation

Question 16

According to Galton, tall parents had tall children, but the children wouldn't be quite as tall as their parents. That is, Galton discovered the phenomenon of

A) a negative correlation (but not the positive correlation, which had already been discovered)
B) regression to the mean
C) restriction of range
D) multiple regression

Question 17

A regression line for a correlation of +1.00 would

A) be parallel to the X-axis
B) be parallel to the Y-axis
C) higher for low values on the X-axis than for high values on the X-axis
D) higher for high values on the X-axis than for low values on the X-axis

Question 18

In his 1957 "two disciplines" address, Cronbach expressed concern that

A) correlational psychology held secondary status among researchers
B) psychologists were relying too heavily on correlational techniques
C) researchers were abandoning the laboratory for clinical practice
D) psychologists no longer thought of their discipline as scientific

Question 19

Galton uncovered the basic features of a correlational approach in his efforts to show that

A) nature was more important than nurture in determining genius
B) nurture was more important than nature in determining genius
C) the environment was the major determinant of intellectual skill
D) tall parents would produce children even taller than they were

Question 20

Which of the following correlations shows the strongest relationship?

A) -.72
B) +1.21
C) +.70
D) -.09

Question 21

If there is a strong correlation between variables A and B, what is the most likely explanation?

A) A is causing B
B) B is causing B
C) A and B are caused by C
D) could be any of the above - the correlation by itself does not allow one to decide

Question 22

Correlational research is useful for

A) establishing causal relationships
B) making predictions
C) manipulating independent variables
D) factorial-type designs

Question 23

Ed took a Civil Service Test and was subsequently hired by the Post Office, where he performed well. The Civil Service Test was used because

A) it had been shown to be an effective predictor variable
B) it had been useful as a criterion variable
C) scores on the test correlated perfectly with IQ
D) scores on it regressed to the mean

Question 24

If there is a strong relationship between variable A and variable B, it could be that A is causing B to occur, but it could also be that B is causing A to occur. This is known as the

A) directionality problem
B) third variable problem
C) nonlinearity problem
D) range restriction problem

Question 25

A study using a ________ helps to solve the directionality problem.

A) cross-lagged panel correlation
B) partial correlation
C) multiple regression
D) factor analysis

Question 26

A study using a cross-lagged panel correlation helps to solve the _______ problem.

A) third variable
B) restriction of range
C) directionality
D) multiple regression

Question 27

Galton believed that the high correlation between the intelligence levels of parents and children proved that intelligence was inherited. This conclusion illustrates a failure to understand

A) how correlations are calculated
B) the difference between statistically significant correlations and insignificant ones
C) the directionality problem
D) the third variable problem

Question 28

45. In their cross-lagged panel correlational study, Eron and his colleagues found that

A) third grade aggressiveness predicted a later preference for viewing violence
B) third grade preference for viewing violence predicted later aggressive behavior
C) those who were aggressive in the third grade tended not to be aggressive in the
I. “thirteenth” grade
D) third grade preference for viewing violence was unrelated to third grade
I. aggressiveness

Question 29

A researcher discovers a correlation of +.87 between study time and GPA. What can be concluded?

A) if you study a lot, your GPA will go up
B) if you have a high GPA, you will be forced to study more to keep up
C) students who study a lot tend to have higher GPAs than those who don't study much
D) the underlying cause of the correlation is native intelligence

Question 30

The coefficient of determination

A) will never be a negative number
B) solves the directionality problem
C) enables conclusions about cause and effect in correlational studies
D) is always closer to 1.00 than the value for Pearson's r

Question 31

Suppose you investigate the relationship between college grades and time spent on Facebook and discover that the correlation is -.71. What does this tell you?

A) longer times spent on Facebook are related to higher grades
B) longer times spent on Facebook are related to lower grades
C) to improve your grades, get off of Facebook
D) time spent on Facebook really doesn't have anything to do with grades

Question 32

Eron and his colleagues were able to show that TV viewing preferences were related to aggressiveness ten years later. What procedure did they use?

A) cross-lagged panel correlation
B) partial correlation
C) multiple regression
D) factor analysis

Question 33

Suppose the correlation between IQ at age 5 and elementary school performance is +.4, and the correlation between SAT performance and college grades is +.3. The difference in these relationships is most likely due to the fact that

A) the second one is nonlinear
B) the second one has a more restricted range of scores
C) elementary school performance is probably an unreliable measure
D) intelligence declines slightly with age

Question 34

A regression equation is used for

A) making predictions about a second variable, given the value of the first variable
B) solving the directionality problem
C) solving the third variable problem
D) calculating the size of the correlation

Question 35

A study using a partial correlation helps to solve the _______ problem.

A) third variable
B) restriction of range
C) directionality
D) multiple regression

Question 36

If a researcher is trying to predict college grades, knowing high school grades, then

A) the predictor variable will be college grades
B) the criterion variable will be high school grades
C) the prediction will be poorer if only the top 20% of high school students are used than if they are all used
D) multiple regression rather than bivariate regression must be used

Question 37

A researcher discovers a strong correlation between the number of hours spent watching TV and the level of aggression shown at school. What can be concluded?

A) watching a lot of TV causes children to become aggressive
B) naturally aggressive children are led to watch a lot of TV
C) knowing TV-watching patterns enables a prediction of aggressiveness
D) because of the distraction of TV, those who watch a lot of it are not very aggressive

Question 38

A study using a ________ helps to solve the third variable problem.

A) cross-lagged panel correlation
B) partial correlation
C) multiple regression
D) factor analysis

Question 39

By using a __________ procedure, Eron and his colleagues were able to rule out several potential third variables that might have affected the relationship they found between preference for TV violence and aggressiveness.

A) cross-lagged panel correlation
B) partial correlation
C) multiple regression
D) factor analysis

Question 40

Which of the following is true about a correlation of +.70 between variables A and B?

A) about half of the variability in A can be accounted for by variability in B
B) the scores for A and B will be about the same 70% of the time
C) there would be a greater ability to predict than for a correlation of -.70
D) A causes B about 70% of the time; B causes A about 30% of the time

Question 41

A researcher believes that anxiety disorders in children can be predicted by a combination of several variables: shyness in preschool, mother dominance, and father absence. This study will use which procedure?

A) multiple regression
B) partial correlation
C) factor analysis
D) bivariate correlations

Question 42

Multiple regression involves

A) one bivariate procedure and two multivariate procedures
B) one criterion variable and two or more predictor variables
C) one predictor variable and two or more criterion variables
D) performing a bivariate regression procedure several times

Question 43

When comparing shyness scores for twins, a researcher finds a high positive correlation between pairs of twins. What does this correlation by itself mean?

A) if one twin is shy the other twin is also likely to be shy
B) if one twin is shy the other twin will be outgoing
C) shyness is inherited
D) shyness is learned

Question 44

A researcher administers several tests, correlates each test with every other test, and looks for tests that cluster together. The researcher is probably performing the preliminary steps of what procedure?

A) multiple regression
B) partial correlation
C) factor analysis
D) criterion validity

Question 45

Children who score high on the K•ABC also score high on both the California Achievement Test and the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills. This indicates that the K•ABC has

A) split-half reliability
B) test-retest reliability
C) content validity
D) criterion validiy

Question 46

Researchers evaluating the K•ABC intelligence test calculated a split-half reliability. What does this mean?

A) they correlated performance at time 1 with a repeat performance at time 2
B) they looked to see if performance was correlated with the California Achievement
C) they correlated subsets of items within the same subtest of the K•ABC
D) they determined that K•ABC scores correlated with scores on the Stanford-Binet IQ

Question 47

The points will cluster near the diagonal of a(n) ____ for a strong correlation.

Question 48

A study examining the effects of brain damage on memory, using human subjects,

A) must be correlational rather than experimental
B) must be experimental rather than correlational
C) can be either correlational or experimental
D) cannot use either correlational or experimental procedures: humans are involved

Question 49

When is correlational research preferred over experimental research?

A) whenever the researcher wishes to determine cause and effect relationships
B) whenever the researcher prefers to do field rather than laboratory research
C) whenever the study includes factors that cannot possibly be controlled
D) never - experimental studies are always preferred

Question 50

Which of the following is true about the presence of a Pearson's r in the results of a study?

A) it means that the study could not have been an experimental study
B) it means that the relationship between two variables has been determined
C) it means that a correlational design has been used
D) it means that you won't be seeing an ANOVA in the same results section

Question 51

A research design with the same interpretation problem as a correlational study is

A) a repeated-measures design
B) a mixed design
C) a P x E factorial design
D) an independent groups design

Question 52

Comparing K•ABC performance to performance on the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills enables a researcher to evaluate

A) the split-half reliability of the K•ABC
B) the criterion validity of the K•ABC
C) the test-retest reliability of the K•ABC
D) the amount of measurement error to be found in the K•ABC

Question 53

Suppose there is a high positive correlation between reading speed and reading comprehension. You suspect that IQ is a potential third variable. You complete a partial correlation procedure and, with IQ controlled statistically, the high correlation between speed and comprehension virtually disappears. What do you conclude?

A) IQ is an important third variable affecting the correlation
B) IQ can be ruled out as a third variable underlying the correlation
C) IQ must be the cause of the correlation
D) not enough information to decide

Question 54

In a(n) _________, changes in one variable are accompanied by inverse changes in a second variable.

Question 55

In Eron's study of TV and aggression, the initial correlation between preference for violent TV and later aggressiveness was +.31. Several partial correlations were calculated, to examine the potential effects of third variables. After these factors were statistically controlled, the overall correlation was still about +.30. What did Eron conclude?

A) none of the examined factors contributed to the observed relationship
B) each of the examined variables showed a high likelihood of being third variables
C) that in fact no link between TV viewing preferences and aggressiveness could be shown
D) that TV causes 31% of all violent behavior

Question 56

The same interpretation problems found in correlational studies also occur in

A) experimental studies
B) studies with subject variables
C) mixed factorial studies
D) repeated-measures studies

Question 57

In McClelland's famous study on the "achieving society,"

A) achievement themes were assessed by examining children's literature
B) there was a correlation between geography and societal achievement (more achievement
C) societies achieved more if they limited access to children's literature
D) there was a high correlation between IQ and a society's achievement

Question 58

Researchers evaluating the K•ABC intelligence test calculated the correlation between odd-numbered items in a subtest and even-numbered items. They were trying to determine

A) split-half reliability
B) test-retest reliability
C) criterion validity
D) face validity

Question 59

Suppose there is a high positive correlation between reading speed and reading comprehension. You suspect that IQ is a potential third variable. You complete a partial correlation procedure and, with IQ controlled statistically, the high correlation between speed and comprehension remains. What do you conclude?

A) IQ is an important third variable affecting the correlation
B) IQ can be ruled out as a third variable underlying the correlation
C) IQ must be the cause of the correlation
D) not enough information to decide

Question 60

To predict college success from a combination of high school grades, weighted letters of recommendation, and SAT scores, an admissions department would probably use what procedure?

A) bivariate analysis
B) partial correlation
C) factor analysis
D) multiple regression

Question 61

The effect of __________ of one or both of the variables being correlated is to reduce the size of Pearson's r.

Question 62

When pairs of scores come from different individuals, a specific type of correlations are used, referred to as __________.

Question 63

Explain why Pearson's r calculations can appear in studies that are experimental in design and ANOVAs can appear in studies that are correlational in design.

Question 64

In a bivariate correlation, A could be the cause of B, but B could be causing A. The difficulty in deciding between these alternatives is known as the _________ problem.

Question 65

On the basis of using a(n) _________ procedure, Spearman argued that there exists a general intelligence (g), possessed to some degree by everyone.

Question 66

Consider correlations of +.65 and -.65. How do they differ? In what way are they alike?

Question 67

The effects of third variables can be evaluated by using a statistical procedure that involves calculating ________ correlations.

Question 68

What is the coefficient of determination and what does it mean?

Question 69

A researcher administers a number of tests and correlates each test with every other test, placing the results in a(n) __________.

Question 70

Describe how correlational research can be used to examine the relationship between psychological defense and behavioral maturity.

Question 71

Unlike test-retest reliability, _________ reliability can be determined by administering the test just once.

Question 72

Explain how correlational twin studies can be used to evaluate the relative contribution of heredity and environment to some trait.

Question 73

Because correlational studies cannot control extraneous variables, these factors can provide alternative explanations for the obtained correlation; these factors are sometimes called ________ variables.

Question 74

The K•ABC correlated highly with the California Achievement Test, thereby demonstrating the K•ABC's _________.

Question 75

Describe how outliers may affect a correlation and how can one determine if there are outliers in the data.

Question 76

Although experimental studies with manipulated independent variables have the advantage of allowing stronger conclusions, correlational research is essential. Explain why.

Question 77

To address the directionality problem, correlations are calculated between measures that are taken at separate points in time in a(n) ________ correlational study.

Question 78

Describe the third variable problem and explain how it is addressed by a partial correlation procedure.

Question 79

Explain the directionality problem and how it is addressed by a cross-lagged panel procedure.

Question 80

In a(n) __________ study, there is a criterion variable and several predictor variables.