Deck 6: Control Problems in Experimental Research

Question 1

A between-subjects design

A) requires fewer subjects than a comparable within-subjects design
B) must deal with the problem of sequence effects
C) includes at least two different groups of participants
D) tests the same group of participants at each level of the independent variable

Answer 1

includes at least two different groups of participants

Question 2

Which of the following is not an important factor in determining whether to use matching as a technique for creating equivalent groups?

A) sample size
B) whether an extraneous variable is known to correlate with the dependent variable
C) whether it is possible to measure participants on the potential matching variable
D) whether counterbalancing is required

Answer 2

whether counterbalancing is required

Question 3

When using matching to create equivalent groups, a matching variable is

A) any factor that is believed to correlate with the dependent measure being used
B) another name for the independent variable
C) always a subject variable
D) never actually measured

Answer 3

any factor that is believed to correlate with the dependent measure being used

Question 4

A within-subjects design

A) requires more subjects than a comparable between-subjects design
B) must deal with the problem of order effects
C) tests different groups of participants at each level of the independent variable
D) includes at least three different groups of subjects

Question 5

As a technique for creating equivalent groups, when is matching preferred over random assignment?

A) when a large number of subjects are available and can be used
B) when some extraneous variable is known to correlate with the dependent variable
C) whenever a within-subjects design is preferred over a between-subjects design
D) whenever a potential confound exists, but you aren't aware of its presence

Question 6

In _______, each subject volunteering for the study has an equal chance of being placed into group A or group B.

A) random assignment
B) counterbalancing
C) matching
D) using a Latin square

Question 7

What do random assignment and matching have in common?

A) they are both designed to reduce the number of participants needed for a study
B) they both provide effective counterbalancing
C) they are both designed to create equivalent groups of participants
D) they are both commonly found in within-subjects designs

Question 8

What is accomplished by random assignment?

A) possible order effects are controlled
B) possible confounds are spread evenly through the different groups
C) an equal number of subjects per group is assured
D) a representative sample is selected from the population

Question 9

Random assignment is to random selection as _______ is to ________.

A) between-subjects; within-subjects
B) placing participants in groups; acquiring participants for the study
C) complete counterbalancing; partial counterbalancing
D) recruiting subjects; debriefing subjects

Question 10

When deciding to use matching, which of the following is unimportant as a factor contributing to the decision?

A) sample size
B) whether an extraneous variable is known to correlate with the dependent variable
C) whether it is possible to measure participants on the potential matching variable
D) all of the above are important

Question 11

When subjects partake in each condition before any condition is repeated ________ has been used.

A) reverse counterbalancing
B) matching
C) block randomization
D) blocked random assignment

Question 12

All of the following characterize between-subjects designs except

A) concern over order effects
B) requires larger N than comparable within-subjects designs
C) concern over how to create equivalent groups
D) random assignment frequently used

Question 13

When is it most likely that a between-subjects design is being used?

A) when a Latin square is mentioned in the design
B) when the independent variable is a manipulated variable
C) when a subject variable is being used
D) whenever there are more than 40 subjects being tested

Question 14

Blocked random assignment is sometimes used in order to

A) match participants on some potentially confounding factor
B) insure an equal number of participants per condition
C) insure that a random sample is selected
D) accomplish complete counterbalancing

Question 15

A within-subjects design

A) is also known as a repeated-measures design
B) must deal with the problem of equivalent groups
C) includes a minimum of two independent variables
D) must include a subject variable

Question 16

All of the following characterize within-subjects designs except

A) concern over order effects
B) requires smaller N than comparable between-subjects designs
C) researcher will use either random assignment or matching
D) some form of counterbalancing will be used

Question 17

When using a matching procedure

A) participants are tested upon completion of the study as a manipulation check.
B) participants are tested upon completion of the study for an assessment of individual differences.
C) participants with different scores are paired then a member of each pair is randomly assigned to each level of the independent variable.
D) participants with similar scores are paired then a member of each pair is randomly assigned to each level of the independent variable.

Question 18

In between-subject designs,

A) each subject participates in at least two levels of the independent variable
B) relatively small numbers of participants usually need to be recruited
C) blocked random assignment can be used as a way for forming equivalent groups
D) block randomization can be used as a method of counterbalancing

Question 19

A between-subjects design

A) is also known as a repeated-measures design
B) must deal with the problem of equivalent groups
C) includes a minimum of two independent variables
D) must include a subject variable

Question 20

In a study by Sigall and Ostrove, participants recommended jail sentences for "Barbara Helm." The study is a good example of

A) the use of complete counterbalancing
B) the advantages of matching over random assignment as a means of creating equivalent groups
C) a type of study requiring a between-subjects design
D) a type of study requiring a within-subjects design

Question 21

In a study with three conditions in which participants are tested in each condition more than once, block randomization could produce each of the following sequences except

A) ACCBAB
B) ABCCBA
C) CABBCA
D) BACCBA

Question 22

If subjects are tested once in each condition,

A) a Latin square can be used to accomplish counterbalancing
B) the study is by definition a between-subjects design
C) reverse counterbalancing is the best technique to use to control order effects
D) complete counterbalancing cannot be used

Question 23

Over a series of trials, participants experiencing one order of conditions might have an advantage over participants experiencing another order. These effects are called

A) carry-over effects
B) transfer effects
C) experimenter bias effects
D) progressive effects

Question 24

Hagemann, Strauss, and Leißing studied the effects of the color of clothing (red versus blue) in referees' judgments of tae kwan do ability. Referees viewed two sets of 11 videos in random order, and each set was counterbalanced. In effect, Hagemann accomplished

A) complete counterbalancing
B) block randomization
C) both a and b
D) none of the above

Question 25

For which of the following empirical questions would a within-subjects design be preferred?

A) Who learns mazes more quickly, male or female rats?
B) Do participants give harsher jail sentences to unattractive defendants?
C) Is the Ponzo illusion stronger for those raised in a Western, industrialized cultures?
D) Is the Ponzo illusion stronger with the parallel lines horizontal or vertical?

Question 26

In a taste test, subjects try Coke, then Pepsi, then RC Cola, then RC Cola, then Pepsi, and finally, Coke. What method of counterbalancing is being used here?

A) block randomization
B) reverse counterbalancing
C) complete counterbalancing
D) asymmetrical transfer

Question 27

Five golfers each hit 50 brand A golf balls, while at the same time and on the same driving range five other golfers hit 50 brand B golf balls. On average, the brand B balls go significantly farther. The difference is most likely due to

A) a warm-up effect
B) a change in wind direction
C) individual differences
D) evaluation apprehension

Question 28

In within-subjects designs,

A) each subject enters the study naive with respect to the procedures to be used
B) large numbers of participants usually need to be recruited
C) blocked random assignment can be used as a way for forming equivalent groups
D) block randomization can be used as a method of counterbalancing

Question 29

In a study with three conditions in which participants are tested in each condition more than once, reverse counterbalancing would produce which of the following sequences?

A) ACCBAB
B) ABCCBA
C) CABBCA
D) ABCABC

Question 30

In a taste test comparing popcorn brands A, B, C, and D, the experimenter decides to use a Latin square for counterbalancing. Assuming that ten participants will be tested in each of the sequences used, how many people will be needed to complete the study?

A) 40
B) 10
C) 80
D) 4

Question 31

The performance of participants in a within-subjects design sometimes deteriorates because of fatigue or boredom. This problem is known as

A) a progressive effect
B) a carry-over effect
C) a placebo effect
D) a matching effect

Question 32

Five golfers each hit 50 brand A golf balls, and then 50 brand B golf balls. On average, the brand B balls go significantly farther. Which of the following is true?

A) a warm-up effect
B) a wind change
C) brand B is better
D) any of the above are possible explanations

Question 33

In a taste test comparing popcorn brands A, B, C and D, the experimenter decides to use complete counterbalancing. Assuming that one subject will be tested in each of the sequences used, how many people will be needed to complete the study?

A) 24
B) 48
C) 12
D) 4

Question 34

If participants only experience each of the study's conditions one time, then all of the following counterbalancing techniques can be used except

A) Latin square
B) complete counterbalancing
C) random sample of all possible sequences
D) reverse counterbalancing

Question 35

In a taste test comparing popcorn brands A, B, and C, participants only try each brand once, and an equal number of subjects experience each of the six possible sequences. Which type of counterbalancing is being used?

A) Latin square
B) complete counterbalancing
C) block randomization
D) reverse counterbalancing

Question 36

When used as a counterbalancing procedure, block randomization insures

A) an equal number of participants per condition
B) that each condition is tested before any condition is retested
C) that each possible sequence of conditions is used
D) equivalent groups

Question 37

A progressive effect

A) is more easily controlled by counterbalancing than a carry-over effect
B) is more likely to occur in a between-subjects design than a within-subjects design
C) usually results in a confound, making counterbalancing a problem
D) tends to produce effects that are nonlinear from trial to trial

Question 38

The general procedure used to control for order effects is called

A) randomization
B) double blind
C) counterbalancing
D) automation

Question 39

In a within-subjects design, the differences between experimental conditions could be due to all of the following except

A) some confounding factor
B) random error
C) individual differences
D) the effect of the independent variable

Question 40

In a between-subjects design, the differences between conditions could be due to all of the following except

A) some confounding factor
B) random error
C) a carry-over effect
D) the effect of the independent variable

Question 41

Terman's studies of gifted children have been criticized because

A) the high level of attrition made interpretation impossible or highly speculative at best
B) he used a cross-sectional strategy when he should have used a longitudinal strategy
C) significant cohort effects existed
D) his sample could have been more representative

Question 42

Which of the following is true of Terman's study of gifted children?

A) it illustrated the problem of cohort effects in cross-sectional studies
B) unlike many longitudinal studies, attrition was very low
C) it combined longitudinal and cross-sectional methods into a single design
D) it showed that intellectually gifted children have serious problems with social skills

Question 43

In a balanced Latin square,

A) each possible sequence of conditions is used
B) each condition appears equally often in each sequential position
C) participants are tested more than once per condition
D) block randomization must be used

Question 44

Terman's studies of gifted children

A) showed clear evidence of a detrimental cohort effect
B) was flawed by problems with attrition
C) used a longitudinal design
D) used a cross-sectional design

Question 45

Experimenter expectancies can be reduced by using

A) trained experimenters instead of machines
B) a placebo control group
C) a double-blind procedure
D) a between-subjects rather than a within-subjects design

Question 46

According to Orne, what characterizes most participants?

A) they are suspicious and uninterested in the study in which they are participating
B) they are cooperative and try to help the experimenter
C) they are too afraid for their behavior to be considered normal
D) they will actively try to give results opposite to the ones wanted by the experimenter

Question 47

Demand characteristics refer to

A) aspects of the experimental procedure that give away the study's hypotheses
B) demands placed on experimenters by non-cooperative participants
C) pressures placed on participants by experimenters who want a study to come out a certain way
D) features of the study that raise evaluation apprehension in subjects

Question 48

Longitudinal design is to cross-sectional design as ______ is to _______.

A) within-subjects; between-subjects
B) between-subjects; within-subjects
C) cohort effect; carry-over effect
D) subject variable; manipulated variable

Question 49

How might experimenter bias be communicated to subjects in animal research?

A) experimenters are more likely to cheat (animals can't report fraud)
B) animals in different groups might be handled differently by experimenters
C) the subjects will experience different degrees of evaluation apprehension
D) none of the above - experimenter bias only occurs in research with human subjects

Question 50

Automating the procedures as much as possible and using a double-blind procedure will help to reduce

A) subject bias only
B) experimenter bias only
C) both subject bias and experimenter bias
D) neither subject bias nor experimenter bias

Question 51

Compared to a cross-sectional study, a longitudinal study

A) takes less time to complete
B) has to deal with potential cohort effects
C) has attrition as its major difficulty
D) has to be concerned about counterbalancing properly

Question 52

In a _____________ procedure, both participants and the experimenters do not know which condition is being tested, whereas in a _____________ procedure only the participants are unaware of which condition is being tested.

A) placebo control; manipulation check
B) manipulation check; placebo control
C) single-blind; double-blind
D) double-blind; single-blind

Question 53

Which of the following is true about cohort effects?

A) they are less important if the ages compared are 50, 60, and 70 (as opposed to 5, 6, and 7)
B) they are a version of the general problem of controlling order effects
C) they are more of a problem for longitudinal than for cross-sectional studies
D) they create a potential nonequivalent groups problem

Question 54

Sometimes a subject's behavior is affected by the mere knowledge that he or she is participating in an experiment. Historically, this has been termed

A) the Hawthorne effect
B) the good subject effect
C) the evaluation apprehension effect
D) the bad subject effect

Question 55

Demand characteristics are more likely to be found in

A) between-subjects designs rather than within-subjects designs
B) within-subjects designs rather than between-subjects designs
C) studies with animal subjects than studies with human subjects
D) cross-sectional rather than longitudinal studies

Question 56

In a memory study, each subject learns six lists of words. A researcher decides to use a Latin square to determine the order in which lists will be shown. Which of the following is true?

A) if ten subjects are to be assigned to each row of the Latin square, then 600 subjects will be needed to complete the study
B) participants will see each list more than once
C) six different orders of list presentation will be used
D) the Latin square will have 36 (6x6) rows

Question 57

Because they experience ____________, participants try to behave in a way that makes the experimenter think well of them.

A) evaluation apprehension
B) demand characteristics
C) the Hawthorne effect
D) deception in a study

Question 58

In a cross-sectional comparison of intelligence in people aged 20, 40, and 60, differences might be due to aging but they might also be due to the different rearing conditions experienced by participants. This latter interpretation illustrates a(n) _______ effect.

A) cohort
B) placebo
C) attrition
D) order

Question 59

Compared to a longitudinal study, a cross-sectional study

A) takes longer to complete
B) has to deal with potential cohort effects
C) has attrition as its major difficulty
D) has to be concerned about counterbalancing properly

Question 60

Experimenter expectancies

A) have been uncovered in studies involving human subjects but not in those using animals
B) can be reduced by using a double blind procedure
C) can be eliminated by recruiting only "good" subjects
D) are not a problem for experienced experimenters

Question 61

Why does counterbalancing solve progressive order effects better than carry-over effects?

Question 62

Describe two procedures for accomplishing counterbalancing for studies in which each participant encounters each level of the independent variable just one time.

Question 63

What is the essential control problem to be solved in a within-subjects design and what is the general procedure for solving this problem?

Question 64

Demand characteristics, and therefore subject bias, can be reduced by using

A) only good subjects
B) only those participants incapable of figuring out the hypothesis
C) deception
D) within-subjects rather than between-subjects designs

Question 65

Any aspect of a research procedure that gives away the true hypothesis is called a(n) ___________.

Question 66

The avoidance of order effects is the major design problem for __________ designs.

Question 67

In the research example that used Starbucks coffee, participants did not know whether they were drinking regular or caffeine. They were later tested for memory by experimenters who did not know which group the participants were in. Which of the following is true about this study?

A) it failed to control for experimenter expectations
B) it illustrates the good subject effect
C) the participants were senior citizens, so it showed an especially high level of evaluation apprehension
D) the design was an example of a double blind procedure

Question 68

The sequence ABCDDCBA is indicative of __________ counterbalancing.

Question 69

In order to insure that equal numbers of participants are randomly assigned to each condition of a study, _______ is sometimes used.

Question 70

Use the Sigall and Ostrove (Barbara Helm) study as a way of showing how some studies require the use of a between-subjects rather than a within-subjects design.

Question 71

Cohort effects can make it difficult for developmental psychologists to interpret the results of ___________ studies.

Question 72

Attrition can be a problem for developmental psychologists who do ??????????????????????___________ research.

Question 73

What is the essential control problem to be solved in a between-subjects design and what are two ways of solving the problem?

Question 74

Experimenter bias can be reduced by using a(n) _________ procedure in which neither the experimenter nor the subject knows which condition is being tested.

Question 75

All possible orders of conditions are used in ___________ counterbalancing.

Question 76

In a study in which the procedures were assumed to create anxiety, some participants were interrupted in the middle of the procedure and their blood pressure was checked. This is an example of

A) a Hawthorne effect
B) a manipulation check
C) a check on experimenter bias
D) a placebo control

Question 77

The term ________ effect has traditionally been used to describe what happens when participants do not behave normally, simply because they know they are part of an experiment.

Question 78

All of the following could be used to control for subject bias, except

A) using some degree of deception
B) conducting an unobtrusive field study
C) doing a manipulation check
D) informing participants of the hypothesis instead of deceiving them

Question 79

The creation of equivalent groups is the major design problem for __________ designs.

Question 80

The two most common techniques for creating equivalent groups are _________ and ___________.