Deck 8: B: Thought and Language

Question 1

Many people categorize tomatoes as a vegetable,even though they technically meet the scientific definition for a fruit.A likely reason for this is that

A)they are using classical categorization.
B)tomatoes only belong in a category of their own.
C)tomatoes are closer to most people's prototype for a vegetable than their prototype for a fruit.
D)the tomato is a common prototype for fruit.

Answer 1

C

Question 2

In cognitive psychology,a__________________ is an interconnected set of nodes (or concepts)and the links that join them to form a category.

A)semantic network
B)mental set
C)algorithm
D)prototype

Answer 2

A

Question 3

A group of interrelated concepts is a called a ____________.

A)category
B)superconcept
C)mental set
D)prototype

Answer 3

A

Question 4

Concepts and categories are important because they allow us to

A)classify objects or ideas as belonging to one single group and no others.
B)avoid using prototypes in most situations.
C)develop mental sets which help us solve new problems.
D)organize and manage tremendous amounts of information.

Question 5

One way to understand the relationship between various categories and concepts is to draw a diagram of a(n)___________.

A)algorithm
B)mental set
C)semantic network
D)prototype

Question 6

In a semantic network,the ____________ represent concepts,and the _______________ represent the structure of a category as well as the relationships among different categories.

A)nodes;links
B)links;nodes
C)graded memberships;prototypes
D)prototypes;graded memberships

Question 7

Which of the following is most likely to be a basic-level category?

A)1967 Ford Mustang
B)vehicle
C)convertible
D)car

Question 8

Most people take longer to identify a platypus as a mammal than it takes them to identify a cat as a mammal.This is likely because a cat is closer to most people's _______________ for the concept of mammal.

A)mental set
B)prototype
C)basic concept
D)algorithm

Question 9

Classical categorization involves typically involves the use of ______________,while categorization using prototypes involves _____________.

A)comparison;definitions
B)definitions;comparison
C)concepts;graded memberships
D)graded memberships;concepts

Question 10

A _____________ is the mental representation of an object,event,or idea.

A)mental set
B)concept
C)algorithm
D)prototype

Question 11

Research indicates that people categorize concepts by using

A)classical categorization,not prototypes.
B)prototypes,not classical categorization.
C)both classical categorization and prototypes.
D)neither classical categorization nor prototypes.

Question 12

One problem with the theory of classical categorization is that it does not allow for _____________.

A)formal definitions
B)concepts
C)graded membership
D)mental sets

Question 13

Which of the following is NOT true of basic level categories?

A)They are always the most general category in a semantic network.
B)They are the level at which most thinking occurs.
C)They are the level at which prototypes exist.
D)They are the terms used most often in conversation.

Question 14

For most people,a dog is a better fit than a tarantula for the category of pets.This is an example of ____________.

A)linguistic relativity
B)graded membership
C)priming
D)functional fixedness

Question 15

Because semantic networks are arranged ________________,they show which categories are more basic than others.

A)algorithmically
B)in a hierarchy
C)phonetically
D)congruently

Question 16

Mental representations of an average category member are called _____________ and allow for "classification by resemblance."

A)mental sets
B)concepts
C)algorithms
D)prototypes

Question 17

The use of specific rules to categorize objects is an example of

A)using a prototype.
B)linguistic relativity.
C)using a heuristic.
D)classical categorization.

Question 18

Mandi shares her frozen dessert with her sister."Wow!" says her sister,"What type of ice-cream is this?" Mandi explains that,because it does not contain any dairy,the dessert is a sorbet and not an ice-cream.Mandi's use of the technical definition for ice-cream to classify the dessert is an example of

A)using a prototype.
B)classical categorization.
C)using a heuristic.
D)linguistic relativity.

Question 19

The concepts of dog,cat,and goldfish can be grouped together to form a _____________ called pets.

A)prototype
B)mental set
C)superconcept
D)category

Question 20

Which example would most people take longest to identify as a fruit (even though it technically is a fruit)?

A)grape
B)apple
C)orange
D)olive

Question 21

Kyle buys a new refrigerator,but when he gets home,he cannot fit it through the front door of his house.Which of the following would describe the obstacle for Kyle's problem?

A)The refrigerator is outside of the house.
B)The refrigerator is inside the house.
C)Kyle can make the refrigerator narrower by taking the doors off of it.
D)The refrigerator does not fit through the front door.

Question 22

If someone walked up to you and said,"Milk," and then asked you to quickly name an animal,you would likely say,"cow." This illustrates the concept of ______________.

A)priming
B)categorization
C)sentence verification
D)linguistic relativity

Question 23

Kyle buys a new refrigerator,but when he gets home,he cannot fit it through the front door of his house.Which of the following would describe the initial state for Kyle's problem?

A)The refrigerator is outside of the house.
B)The refrigerator is inside the house.
C)Kyle can make the refrigerator narrower by taking the doors off of it.
D)The refrigerator does not fit through the front door.

Question 24

Computers are particularly suited for using ________________ to solve problems.

A)functional fixedness
B)heuristics
C)prototypes
D)algorithms

Question 25

On his way to work,Charlie sees a sign for an upcoming concert for the band Cake.Without even realizing it,the word cake has made Charlie think of baked sweets,which makes him think of getting a donut.This is an example of ______________.

A)categorization
B)priming
C)linguistic relativity
D)sentence verification

Question 26

Talia is looking for her cat by methodically searching each room and then closing the door.She is using what type of problem solving strategy?

A)an algorithm
B)a heuristic
C)anchoring
D)a hunch

Question 27

A formula is an example of a(n)______________.

A)logarithm
B)algorithm
C)response set
D)heuristic

Question 28

The linguistic relativity hypothesis suggests that

A)one's language determines the pattern of one's thinking and view of the world.
B)one's thinking and view of the world determines the structure of one's language.
C)we decide which objects belong to a concept according to what is most probable or sensible,given the facts at hand.
D)perception of surface structure precedes deep structure in understanding a sentence.

Question 29

Research on the Inuit has revealed that

A)although the Inuit have different words for types of snow then are found in English,they appear to think about snow in the same way Americans and other non-Inuit do.
B)the Inuit have hundreds of different words for snow.
C)the specific language the Inuit use affects the way they think about snow.
D)learning to speak English changes the way Inuits think about snow.

Question 30

Consistent with the linguistic relativity hypothesis,which of the following would most likely be true?

A)People from New England and England think very differently.
B)People from New Mexico and New England think very differently.
C)People from China and New England think very differently.
D)People from China and New England think very similarly.

Question 31

Which of the following would be the best example of culture affecting categorization?

A)A five-year-old child calls a dolphin a "fish."
B)A Japanese man takes off his shoes before entering a house.
C)A woman from a traditional hunter-gather society categorizes plants as edible,inedible,or medicinal,instead of as flower,root,berry,etc.
D)A farmer sees a picture of a chicken sandwich in a magazine and decides to make himself one for lunch.

Question 32

______________ are problem-solving strategies based on a series of rules,while ______________are strategies that stem from prior experiences and provide an educated guess as to what is the most likely solution.

A)Algorithms;heuristics
B)Heuristics;algorithms
C)Ill-defined operators;well-defined operators
D)Well-defined operators;Ill-defined operators

Question 33

For cognitive psychologists,problem solving generally refers to

A)the process of finding solutions to only well-defined problems,but not ill-defined problems.
B)finding ways to cope with life stressors.
C)accomplishing a goal when the solution or the path to the solution is not clear.
D)the use of formal,rules-based strategies to find precise solutions.

Question 34

What do we call the hypothesis that language influences what we think?

A)the dynamic hypothesis
B)the language reaction hypothesis
C)the linguistic relativity hypothesis
D)the cognitive linguistic hypothesis

Question 35

Which of the following is most likely to be a basic-level category?

A)animal
B)calico
C)cat
D)Siamese

Question 36

When tested in a laboratory study,Reese identified the statement,"Cows make milk" as true faster than she did the statement "Cows breathe air." What does this likely indicate about the relationship between categories in her semantic network?

A)Cows and breathing air are closer together than milk and breathing air.
B)Milk is a basic level category.
C)Cows and milk are closer together than cows and breathing air.
D)Animals that breathe is a basic level category.

Question 37

Initial state,goal state,and obstacles are the three main features of ___________.

A)semantic networks
B)language
C)categorization
D)problems

Question 38

Kyle buys a new refrigerator,but when he gets home,he cannot fit it through the front door of his house.Which of the following would describe a strategy for Kyle's problem?

A)The refrigerator is outside of the house.
B)The refrigerator is inside the house.
C)Kyle can make the refrigerator narrower by taking the doors off of it.
D)The refrigerator does not fit through the front door.

Question 39

Which of the following is true about priming effects?

A)Priming is an affective form of behaviour control.
B)Priming effects only occur in laboratory research.
C)The chains of associations activated by a specific priming cue are the same for everyone.
D)Priming can occur without conscious awareness.

Question 40

According to your textbook,in which way do Americans and the Japanese tend to differ?

A)Americans tend to use basic level categories whereas the Japanese do not.
B)Americans tend to focus on a single characteristic,whereas Japanese people tend to view objects in relation to their environment.
C)Americans consider cows to be livestock whereas the Japanese do not.
D)Americans tend to use classical categorization,whereas the Japanese use prototypes.

Question 41

Johannes has been a car mechanic for many years and is very good at diagnosing problems with cars.However,when an electric car comes into the garage,his approach to diagnosing the problem is unsuccessful.Johannes failure is likely the result of

A)an operator.
B)a prototype.
C)an anchoring effect.
D)a mental set.

Question 42

Seventy percent of the students in a classroom are women and 30 percent are men.One student is described as ambitious,athletic,and assertive.Why are most people likely to think this description refers to a male student?

A)The anchoring effect can lead to gender bias.
B)They are using the representativeness heuristic.
C)People seek only confirming information.
D)People tend to make relative comparisons.

Question 43

Which of the following is true about the use of the representativeness heuristic to make judgments?

A)Use of the representativeness heuristic almost always leads to incorrect judgments.
B)Use of the representativeness heuristic almost always leads to correct judgments.
C)In many cases the representativeness heuristic leads to correct judgments,but it can also lead to biased judgments in other situations.
D)The representativeness heuristic is used for solving well-defined problems,but is not relevant for making judgments.

Question 44

Riley has figured out how to unlock his bedroom door with a paper clip.What has he most likely overcome in his new use of the paper clip?

A)functional fixedness
B)the representational problem
C)the representative heuristic
D)the confirmation bias

Question 45

Compared to a heuristic,an algorithm is more likely to

A)involve specific rules.
B)require following a step-by-step procedure.
C)give you a precise answer to a problem.
D)involve intuition about how to solve a problem.

Question 46

In a research study,participants are told that Louis has lived in Boston his whole life.They are then asked which is more likely: A)Louis is a baseball fan,or B)Louis is a baseball fan who roots for the Boston Red Sox.Which of the following is true?

A)Participants who answer 'A' are correct.
B)Participants who answer 'A' have committed the conjunction fallacy.
C)Participants who answer 'B' are demonstrating belief perseverance.
D)Participants who answer 'B' have committed the conjunction fallacy.

Question 47

The television character MacGyver was famous for using everyday objects to get out of trouble.In one episode,for example,MacGyver used the aluminum foil wrapper from a stick of gum to replace a blown electrical fuse.The MacGyver character clearly did NOT suffer from what cognitive obstacle to problem solving?

A)the anchoring effect
B)confirmation bias
C)functional fixedness
D)the representative heuristic

Question 48

Frank mistakenly believes that there are more words that begin with the letter "k" than there are with the letter "k" in the third position due to __________________.

A)the representativeness heuristic
B)the availability heuristic
C)anchoring effect
D)confirmation bias

Question 49

In the nine-dot problem discussed in your textbook,the rules do not specify that the lines cannot extend beyond the dots;however,most people try to find a solution that follows this non-existent rule anyway.This is an example of

A)the anchoring effect.
B)belief perseverance
C)a goal state
D)a self-imposed cognitive obstacle.

Question 50

Which of the following is true regarding cognitive obstacles?

A)Cognitive obstacles are often self-imposed.
B)Cognitive obstacles can be overcome by using a mental set.
C)Cognitive obstacles are always caused by the parameters of the problem itself.
D)Cognitive obstacles can be overcome by using functional fixedness.

Question 51

A loose screw on the visor causes it to drop down while Ben drives;however,he keeps forgetting to take a screwdriver out to the car to fix it.When he notices the visor drop again,he reaches into his pocket for a dime he then uses to tighten the screw holding the visor.What problem-solving difficulty did Ben overcome?

A)relative comparison
B)functional fixedness
C)poor problem representation
D)the representative heuristic

Question 52

When Howie's old girlfriend used to get upset with him,he could smooth things over by buying flowers or chocolates for her.He keeps trying this strategy with his current girlfriend,but she gets angry with him each time.It appears that Howie has developed _______________,which is interfering with the development of a new relationship strategy.

A)a mental set
B)an anchoring effect
C)a prototype
D)a goal state

Question 53

The tendency to solve problems using procedures or strategies that worked in the past on similar problems is called

A)the availability heuristic.
B)the anchoring effect.
C)a mental set.
D)the representativeness heuristic.

Question 54

Which of the following is a heuristic approach to determining how many brownies to make for a party?

A)Make the same number as you did for your last party because you recall that number being about right.
B)Multiply the number of people invited by the number of brownies you want each person to have.
C)Determine the number of brownies in each batch and then determine which multiple of that number is closest the estimated number of brownies needed.
D)Estimate the number of brownies each invitee will eat and then sum the estimates.

Question 55

The _______________ occurs when an individual believes the probability of finding a specific member in two overlapping categories is more likely than finding any member of one of the larger,general categories.

A)anchoring effect
B)representativeness error
C)confirmation bias
D)conjunction fallacy

Question 56

When people make the conjunction fallacy,it is most likely because

A)they are using an algorithmic approach.
B)their judgment is being affected by an anchor.
C)they are using the representativeness heuristic.
D)they are just guessing randomly.

Question 57

When someone does not see that a tool can be used for something other than its intended purpose,then ________________ can be said to have occurred.

A)the anchoring effect
B)confirmation bias
C)functional fixedness
D)the representative heuristic

Question 58

Kendra has been a professional chef for 20 years.Instead of following recipes step by step,she uses her experience to guide her cooking,adding a pinch of salt here,or a little extra oil there.Kendra's approach to cooking is an example of

A)functional fixedness.
B)a heuristic.
C)a mental set.
D)an algorithm.

Question 59

Which decision-making strategy involves making judgments of likelihood based on how well an example represents a specific category?

A)an algorithm
B)goal-state analysis
C)the representativeness heuristic
D)the availability heuristic

Question 60

Suppose 40% of all of the books in a library are fiction and 2% of all of the books are on the Roman Empire.Wanda is a big fan of historical fiction novels.Which of the following is she LEAST likely to leave the library with?

A)a fiction book
B)a book that involves the Roman Empire
C)a fictional book that takes place in the Roman Empire
D)the answer cannot be determined from the information given

Question 61

Kyle is buying a new mattress for his bed.Instead of spending hours or days finding the perfect mattress,Kyle buys the first mattress that is in his price range,and feels "comfortable enough." Kyle's behaviour is typical of a(n)_______________.

A)maximizer
B)heuristic thinker
C)algorithmic thinker
D)satisficer

Question 62

Maximizers are individuals who

A)make judgments of likelihood based on how well an example represents a specific category.
B)seek to make decisions that are "good enough."
C)attempt to evaluate every option for every choice until they find the perfect fit.
D)try to use their time as efficiently as possible.

Question 63

Because of the availability heuristic,Jayne and her husband are most likely to exaggerate the risk to their children of ____________.

A)depression
B)delinquency
C)being kidnapped
D)asthma

Question 64

A real-estate agent is asked by her clients how much they should ask for their house.She just sold a house for $300 000,so she finds herself suggesting an amount within the same range.This is an example of _____________.

A)belief perseverance
B)confirmation bias
C)the representativeness heuristic
D)the anchoring effect

Question 65

Which of the following best matches the view of your textbook's authors on the use of heuristic thinking?

A)Heuristic thinking leads to cognitive biases and should be avoided.
B)Heuristic thinking is superior to algorithmic thinking.
C)Using heuristics helps to minimize the risk of cognitive biases.
D)Heuristics help us make efficient decisions and can be beneficial;however they can also lead to errors.

Question 66

________________ is the search for evidence that only supports a preexisting belief,whereas ______________ involves accepting preexisting evidence only if it confirms a belief.

A)Confirmation bias;belief perseverance
B)Belief perseverance;confirmation bias
C)The availability heuristic;the representativeness heuristic
D)The representativeness heuristic;the availability heuristic

Question 67

Why is the relationship between satisficer/maximizer decision-making strategies and satisfaction surprising?

A)Maximizers take more time to make the best possible choice and tend to be happier with the outcome than are satisficers.
B)Satisficers take more time to make the best possible choice and tend to be happier with the outcome than are maximizers.
C)Maximizers take more time to make the best possible choice and tend to be less happy with the outcome than are satisficers.
D)Satisficers take more time to make the best possible choice and tend to be less happy with the outcome than are maximizers.

Question 68

Nate thinks that Consevatives and the NDP almost never work together in Congress.The reason he believes this is that he finds it much easier to think of examples of politicians from the two parties not working together than to think of examples them working together.It is likely that the ______________ has caused Nate to underestimate how frequently Conservatives and the NDP work together.

A)availability heuristic
B)confirmation bias
C)representativeness heuristic
D)anchoring effect

Question 69

When reading information that challenges one's beliefs,one tends to minimize the strengths of such claims.__________ accounts for this barrier to reasoning rationally.

A)Belief perseverance
B)The availability heuristic
C)The unfairness bias
D)The representativeness heuristic

Question 70

What term do psychologists use to describe our tendency to search for evidence that supports our belief and to ignore evidence that might disprove it?

A)confirmation bias
B)convergent thinking
C)availability heuristic
D)representativeness heuristic

Question 71

When using the availability heuristic,people tend to judge the probability of an event based on

A)the need to be right,which makes it hard to listen to the available information with an open mind.
B)statistical consideration of the frequency with which the event occurs in everyday life.
C)the burden of doubt people feel about their abilities to determine probability from available information.
D)how easy it is to think of examples or instances.

Question 72

Satisficers are individuals who

A)make judgments of likelihood based on how well an example represents a specific category.
B)seek to make decisions that are "good enough."
C)attempt to evaluate every option for every choice until they find the perfect fit.
D)try to satisfy the expectations of others.

Question 73

Which of the following is an example of the a framing effect?

A)a soldier running into gunfire to save a wounded friend
B)a child not wanting to be separated from his parents
C)an employee being much more upset about a $100 per month pay cut,then he would be excited about a $100 per month raise
D)a women becoming upset because she cannot find her keys

Question 74

A(n)____________ is a number an individual uses when attempting to solve a problem using numbers,to keep his or her response within a limited range.

A)anchor
B)initial state
C)representativeness value
D)operator

Question 75

When people attempt to solve a problem involving numbers,they may find themselves using another number called ____________ to keep their response within a limited range.

A)an anchor
B)an initial state
C)a representativeness value
D)an operator

Question 76

Research indicates that ______________ are typically happier with their decision than _______________ are.

A)maximizers;satisficers
B)satisficers;maximizers
C)heuristic thinkers;algorithmic thinkers
D)algorithmic thinkers;heuristic thinkers

Question 77

Agatha Harkness-Smythe is determined to ban guns in the United States.This is a controversial topic and social scientists have debated whether the ownership of guns by citizens increases or decreases crime.Agatha could go to the library and look up studies on the linkage between guns and crime rates.Instead,Agatha just reads the local newspaper and only cuts out articles about robberies in which the "bad guy" used a firearm.Agatha is demonstrating

A)mental set.
B)confirmation bias.
C)stereotype threat.
D)mindlessness.

Question 78

Jenny is deciding on which invitations to use for her wedding.If Jenny is a maximizer,she is most likely to

A)choose the least expensive invitation design.
B)choose the most expensive invitation design.
C)choose the first invitation design that she likes.
D)spend a long time looking at different invitation designs until she finds the exact one she is looking for.

Question 79

What is the phenomenon known as the paradox of choice?

A)The greater the number of options to choose from,the faster individuals typically make their decision.
B)The more options individuals have to choose from,the less satisfied they tend to be with their final decision.
C)There is no relationship between the number options to choose from and satisfaction with the final choice.
D)Individuals prefer to have all of their choices made for them.

Question 80

The concept of belief perseverance assumes that we are most likely to believe

A)the scientific method as true.
B)information that agrees with our thinking.
C)information that refutes our thinking.
D)logical thinking.