Deck 6: Development of the Self and Social Cognition

Question 1

Recent research showing that 5-month-olds can discriminate moving images of their own faces from those of peers reveals that they

A) are treating their faces as familiar stimuli
B) are aware that the familiar image they detect is "me"
C) both of these
D) none of these

Answer 1

A

Question 2

If an 18-month-old child stands before a mirror, observes a strange sticker on the head of the image looking back at her, and reaches up and retrieves the sticker from her own head, we conclude that

A) the child clearly recognizes the mirror image as "me"
B) self-recognition is apparently inborn
C) the child thinks the image in the mirror is mimicking her
D) the child clearly recognizes the mirror image as "me" and self-recognition is apparently inborn
E) none of these

Answer 2

A

Question 3

One finding which suggests that social experiences contribute heavily to the development of self-recognition is that

A) chimps reared in isolation do not pass the rouge test
B) mentally retarded humans rarely if ever recognize themselves in a mirror or in photographs
C) both of these
D) none of these

Answer 3

A

Question 4

Unlike older children, 2- to 3-year-olds often fail to retrieve a sticker from their heads if their first glimpse of it (on videotape) is delayed by even a few minutes. This finding suggests that their concept of self is one that could be described as _____ .

A) looking-glass self
B) present self
C) extended self
D) private self

Question 5

Research indicating that 9-month-olds pay more attention to a videotape of an adult mimicking their actions than to a video of themselves and were more inclined to treat the adult as a "playmate" establishes that _____ .

A) 9-month-olds discriminate their images from that of a stranger
B) 9-month-olds recognize their images as "me"
C) 9-month-olds recognize the adult as a potential social partner
D) 9-month-olds discriminate their images from that of a stranger and 9-month-olds recognize the adult as a potential social partner
E) all of these

Question 6

The earliest indication of true self-recognition occurs when children

A) know for sure whether they are boys or girls
B) recognize themselves in a photo or a mirror
C) reach for and touch their mirror images
D) define themselves as "little" rather than "big"

Question 7

The development of self-recognition

A) is indicated by the child's willingness to play imitative games with his/her mirror image
B) usually appears by 12-14 months of age
C) depends, in part, on cognitive development
D) all of these

Question 8

Psychoanalyst Margaret Mahler would agree with Piaget and George Herbert Mead that

A) cognitive development stems from social development
B) infants may never be totally incapable of distinguishing themselves from the surrounding environment
C) infants have a primitive sense of self at birth
D) infants are born without a sense of self

Question 9

One social experience that appears to promote the development of self-recognition and social cognition is

A) frequent exposure to mirrors in infancy
B) secure attachments with caregivers
C) heavy exposure to opposite-sex agemates
D) all of these

Question 10

Infants may first begin to construct a sense of self by

A) crying to communicate discomfort
B) repeating pleasurable actions centered on their own bodies
C) discriminating their mirror image from that of a peer
D) learning and using the words "me," "my," and "mine"

Question 11

Achieving self-recognition may pave the way for

A) experiencing and expressing such complex emotions as embarrassment
B) cooperating with others to achieve shared goals
C) both of these
D) none of these

Question 12

Like George Herbert Mead, most developmentalists believe that infants are born with

A) no sense of self
B) the ability to recognize themselves
C) a sense of categorical self
D) a rudimentary sense of self-control

Question 13

One clear clue that 1-year-olds view themselves as separate from their companions is their tendency to

A) repeat interesting actions centered on their own bodies
B) recognize that they have some control over their environments
C) direct a social partners' attention by pointing
D) correctly label the self and others as boys and girls

Question 14

The term "looking-glass self" refers to

A) being able to recognize oneself in a mirror
B) a self-concept based on how other people respond to us
C) one's ability to take another person's perspective
D) an infant's tendency to play with his or her mirror image

Question 15

One social experience that may contribute greatly to autobiographical memories and a child's sense of extended self is (are) _____ .

A) parental statements such as "You're a big boy."
B) cooperative interactions with peer playmates
C) conversations with siblings about pretend play roles
D) conversations with parents about noteworthy past events that they have shared with the child

Question 16

If a young child points to his image in a photograph and says "me" after simply looking intently at photos of other children, we might take this behavior as evidence that the child

A) has a sense of categorical self
B) distinguishes his public and private selves
C) has achieved self-recognition
D) has reached Erikson's stage of "initiative vs. guilt"

Question 17

When a 4-year-old sees a week-old video of himself with a funny looking sticker on his head and he fails to retrieve it, he is communicating his sense of

A) present self
B) public self
C) extended self
D) categorical self

Question 18

One of the first signs of an infant's emerging sense of self is

A) crying when hungry
B) recognizing one's image in a mirror
C) attempts to control objects and events
D) classifying oneself as a boy or a girl

Question 19

Achieving self-recognition depends on

A) cognitive development
B) social experiences
C) both of these
D) none of these

Question 20

According to sociologists Charles Cooley and George Herbert Mead

A) babies have no sense of self at birth
B) the development of the "self" depends on and reflects the child's cognitive development
C) the development of the "self" depends on and reflects the child's social development
D) babies have no sense of self at birth and the development of the "self" depends on and reflects the child's cognitive development
E) babies have no sense of self at birth and the development of the "self" depends on and reflect the child's social development

Question 21

According to Erikson, the tendency of preschool children to define themselves in terms of their _____ is a healthy sign; one suggesting that they are acquiring the sense of _____ they will need to cope with lessons at school.

A) age and gender; autonomy
B) activities; initiative
C) activities; industriousness
D) traits; self-esteem

Question 22

Eder finds that 3 ½- to that provide the basis for _____ later in childhood.

A) psychological; trait-like self-descriptions
B) psychological; an identity
C) physicalistic; trait-like self-decriptions
D) physicalistic; the distinction between public and private self

Question 23

One line of evidence that even preschool children may display some "psychological" self-awareness is the observation that they

A) occasionally use trait words (for example, "she's mean") to describe others
B) are quite aware of regularities in their own conduct and can describe them if asked the right questions
C) know that they are either boys or girls
D) think that they are good at most activities and have high self-esteem

Question 24

Tomika attempts to affect her mother's desire to punish her for roughhousing and breaking a lamp by trying to change her mental state, pleading, "But mommy, it fell and broke by itself." Tomika is

A) providing evidence of having acquired a belief-desire theory of mind
B) making a distinction between public and private self
C) both of these
D) none of these

Question 25

The finding that minority preschoolers often display a pro-White bias and associate more positive characteristics with Whites than with their own ethnic group most likely implies that

A) minority children have negative self-concepts
B) minority children identify themselves as "Whites"
C) minority children have learned some of the negative social stereotypes about minority groups
D) all of these

Question 26

Categorical self refers to

A) the preschooler's confusion over his/her gender identity
B) the toddler's categorical refusal to change his/her self-concept
C) the child's use of "I" to refer to the person who is speaking and "you" to refer to the person spoken to
D) the placement of oneself along dimensions on which people differ

Question 27

The self-description "I have green eyes and brown hair. I play football and I like to run and to swim at the pool" was probably made by a

A) 2-year-old
B) 5-year-old
C) 9-year-old
D) 15-year-old

Question 28

Baron-Cohen often cites _____ as evidence that theory of mind is a biologically-programmed human attribute.

A) the mindblindness of otherwise intellectually capable autistic individuals
B) the delays shown by deaf children in acquiring a belief-desire theory of mind
C) both of these
D) none of these

Question 29

Three-year-old Shawn tells us that he is a boy and his newborn sister is a girl-baby. Apparently Shawn has some knowledge of

A) categorical self
B) public self
C) conservation of gender
D) private self

Question 30

The verbal self-descriptions of preschool children

A) focus exclusively on the social categories to which these youngsters belong (for example, age and sex)
B) make a clear distinction between "private" and "public" self
C) are largely physicalistic and activity-based rather than psychological
D) reflect the sense of industriousness that will help them resolve their identity crises
E) all of these

Question 31

Which of the following utterances best illustrates the development of categorical self?

A) "My car!"
B) "I big boy!"
C) "Pick me up"
D) "That daddy's book"

Question 32

_____ provides strong evidence a child's distinction between public and private self.

A) recognizing that a model's actions reflect an intention but that the same actions of a mechanical toy do not
B) accurately predicting what someone will do based on her desires
C) cooperating with another child in enacting pretend play roles
D) successfully misleading an opponent when providing clues in a hidden object game

Question 33

Early signs that infants are progressing toward acquiring a theory of mind include

A) a 2-month-old's tendency to imitate the actions of human models but not those of inanimate objects
B) a 6-month-old's recognition that people behave differently toward animate and inanimate objects
C) a 9-month-old's willing participation in joint attention episodes in which they recognize that a companion can understand their intentions
D) all of these

Question 34

Critics of Baron-Cohen's biological theory of mind believe that _____ explain the theory of mind deficits often seen in autistic children and the hearing impaired.

A) lack of a theory of mind (TOMM) brain module
B) lack of general intellectual ability
C) deficits in shared attention and interpersonal communication
D) a history of attachment insecurity

Question 35

Development of a belief-desire theory of mind implies that a child thinks that

A) beliefs and desires are different mental states and that either or both can influence a person's conduct
B) beliefs only influence one's conduct when they reflect one's desire
C) beliefs only influence one's conduct when they are inconsistent with one's desires
D) desires are more important than beliefs in determining a person's conduct

Question 36

The first social categories that children place themselves and others into when constructing a categorical self are

A) size and age
B) size and race
C) gender and age
D) gender and race

Question 37

When asked where dreaming occurs, Sammie says "In my head and you can't see them." Sammie has developed

A) categorical self
B) some knowledge of his physical limitations
C) some limited knowledge of private self
D) his sense of extended self

Question 38

Chenghuan sees a girl hide her favorite doll in a dresser drawer. Later, he sees the girl's mother find the doll there and place it in a toy box. When asked where the girl will look for the doll when she returns, Chenghuan says "In the toy box." From these observations we might assume that Chenghuan

A) is a desire theorist
B) is probably less than 4 years old and does not yet fully distinguish public and private self
C) assumes that beliefs represent reality
D) is a desire theorist and assumes that beliefs represent reality
E) all of these

Question 39

Little Susie recognizes that a child who asks for a cookie and receives it will feel good rather than bad. Susie is _____ .

A) probably 1- to 2-years old
B) probably 2- to 3-years old
C) illustrating her awareness of the connections between desires and emotions
D) probably 1- to 2-years old and illustrating her awareness of the connections between desires and emotions
E) probably 2- to 3-years old and illustrating her awareness

Question 40

A well-developed _____ is thought to underlie a child's ability to distinguish "public" and "private" aspects of self.

A) object concept
B) operational intelligence (that is, concrete-operational)
C) theory of mind
D) capacity for symbolism

Question 41

When asked to describe the aspects of self of which he is most proud, J. says "I'm a good father; I always help my work group accomplish its objectives; and I try never to gloat just because I play very well on the company basketball team." Cross-cultural research on the content of persons' self-concepts implies that Joe is most likely

A) Japanese or Chinese
B) Canadian
C) Western European
D) a U.S. citizen from Alaska

Question 42

Levels of self-esteem displayed by 4- to 7-year-olds

A) tend to be highly positive and somewhat unrealistic
B) depend most heavily on their perceived athletic capabilities
C) both of these
D) none of these

Question 43

Once children develop a theory of mind and clearly differentiate their public and private selves, their self-descriptions

A) become more fragmented and contradictory
B) gradually evolve from listings of external attributes to descriptions of enduring inner qualities
C) focus almost exclusively on their beliefs and values
D) contain fewer negative characterizations and more positive attributes

Question 44

Research indicates that preschoolers with _____ siblings are generally quicker to adopt a belief-desire theory of mind.

A) younger
B) older
C) no
D) twin

Question 45

The feelings that one has about his or her characteristics and capabilities represent that aspect of self called

A) self-esteem
B) self-competence
C) categorical self
D) looking-glass self

Question 46

A grade-school child who labels the self as being poor at schoolwork and having few social skills may still enjoy high self-esteem if the child

A) is a boy
B) is a girl
C) views the self as highly competent in other domains which are perceived as more important
D) is a boy and views the self as highly competent in other domains which are perceived as more important
E) is a girl and views the self as highly competent in other domains which are perceived as more important

Question 47

Children's self-concepts become more and more _____ over the course of childhood as they begin to incorporate _____ into their self-descriptions.

A) abstract; psychological attributes
B) concrete; behavioral attributes
C) positive; socially desirable activities
D) public; private knowledge

Question 48

If a person's "Who Am I?" statements consisted primarily of attributes reflecting personal achievements and personal characteristics, we might conclude that this person

A) is a male
B) is a female
C) grew up in an individualistic culture
D) grew up in a collectivist culture

Question 49

Jimmie feels very good about his grades and the large number of friends he has, but he realizes he is a poor fielder and will have to improve if he is to earn a spot on the Little League team. Jimmie displays

A) low self-esteem
B) high self-esteem
C) an inferiority complex
D) a tendency to dwell too extensively on perceived inadequacies

Question 50

A person who describes herself as a very bright individual despite the fact that she doesn't perform very well in subjects she doesn't like is probably

A) a preschooler
B) at least 8 years old
C) a preadolescent
D) an adolescent or adult

Question 51

Greta and John are both teachers. Both feel that they work hard at teaching and are perceived by their students as demanding. However, Greta feels good about her ability to reach students whereas John does not. With regard to teaching, it might be said that Greta and John have

A) different self-concepts and different levels of self-esteem
B) similar self-concepts and different levels of self-esteem
C) similar self-concepts and similar levels of self-esteem
D) different self-concepts and similar levels of self-esteem

Question 52

The description "I am well liked and will usually help others but sometimes I'm cruel and inconsiderate" was most likely made by a(n)

A) preschool child
B) 9-year-old
C) 11-12-year-old preadolescent
D) adolescent

Question 53

According to Harter and her associates, adolescents who _____ are best able to resolve inconsistencies in their conduct across situations and contexts

A) often engage in false-self behaviors
B) have achieved solid mastery of formal operations
C) both of these
D) none of these

Question 54

One excellent predictor of the self-esteem of preschool children is _____ .

A) the positivity of the child's categorical self
B) the child's attachment history with parents
C) the child's relationship with preschool teachers
D) the child's level of role-taking skills

Question 55

Cross-cultural research reveals that

A) development of a belief-desire theory of mind by age 4 is universal
B) even 2-year-old toddlers have a belief-desire theory of mind in more advanced industrialized societies
C) emergence of a belief-desire theory of mind is delayed in cultures lacking the social supports for its emergence
D) even 2-year-old toddlers have a belief-desire theory of mind in more advanced industrialized societies and emergence of a belief-desire theory of mind is delayed in cultures lacking the social supports for its emergence

Question 56

Harter and Monsour (1992) found that _____ are particularly disturbed by the inconsistencies they detect in their self-images.

A) grade-school children
B) early adolescents
C) mid-adolescents
D) older adolescents

Question 57

A factor that seems to contribute a belief-desire theory of mind by illustrating that beliefs are mental constructions that influence behavior is

A) collaborating with adults to deceive others in games involving trickery
B) participating in pretend play with siblings and peers
C) having no siblings and spending most of one's time in solitary play
D) collaborating with adults to deceive others in games involving trickery and participating in pretend play with siblings and peers
E) collaborating with adults to deceive others in games involving trickery and having no siblings and spending most of one's time in solitary play

Question 58

A significant change in self-descriptions that occurs between ages 9 and 11 is a shift from

A) physical characteristics to inner qualities
B) inner qualities to action statements
C) subjective to objective self-evaluations
D) action statements to proverbial characterizations of self

Question 59

Harter and others find that when 8-year-olds rate their social, cognitive, and physical competencies and their general self-worth, they tend to

A) rate themselves uniformly high or low in all domains
B) underestimate their competencies
C) view all these domains as equally important to their sense of self
D) rate themselves quite similarly to how others (teachers, peers) perceive them

Question 60

Research on the origins of self-esteem reveals that _____ may serve as the foundation for constructing a positive or negative sense of self-esteem.

A) working models of self that infants and toddlers construct
B) object permanence
C) one's early theory of mind
D) early ethnic identification

Question 61

According to Erikson, the major developmental task that adolescents face is

A) the establishment of intimacy and love relationships
B) being accepted by one's peers
C) establishing a coherent and integrated sense of self
D) achieving autonomy from one's parents

Question 62

Rambo has graduated from high school and joined the Army to give him some time to decide whether to go to college and what career to pursue. These decisions have been weighing upon him heavily for the past few months. Rambo is in the _____ identity status.

A) moratorium
B) foreclosure
C) achievement
D) diffusion

Question 63

According to Erikson, establishing an identity involves

A) integration of the id and the superego
B) searching for a unified and consistent self-image
C) breaking away from parental influence
D) attempting to bolster one's ego

Question 64

Owing perhaps to prescriptions that they respect parental authority and subordinate individual goals for the greater good of the family, _____ adolescents are likely to display _____ levels of global self-esteem than their European American classmates.

A) African American; higher
B) Asian American; lower
C) African American; lower
D) Asian American; higher

Question 65

As compared to preschoolers, grade-school children are more likely

A) to use social comparison to measure their competencies and gain a sense of self-esteem
B) to display unrealistically high self-esteem
C) both of these
D) none of these

Question 66

Research on the stability of self-esteem from middle childhood throughout adulthood reveals that

A) self-esteem is highly stable from age 8 on
B) self-esteem often declines in adolescence
C) boys show larger dips in self-esteem than girls
D) self-esteem declines in young adulthood and rises among senior citizens
E) self-esteem increases from middle childhood to early adolescence

Question 67

Sixteen-year-old John works in the summer only to have money to support his automobile and his social life. He has little idea what he would like to do as an adult but feels that he can't be bothered with these decisions when there is so much fun to be had. John is in the _____ identity status.

A) moratorium
B) foreclosure
C) diffusion
D) achievement

Question 68

Which best illustrates the identity status called "identity achievement?"

A) Fred plans to be a teacher because his parents and siblings are all teachers.
B) Margo has taken a battery of psychological tests and is exploring different majors in order to determine which career best suits her.
C) Gail knows that she hates to work and assumes that her calling in life will come to her when the time is right.
D) After much soul searching and many discussions with a career counselor, Lee changed from pre-med to elementary education and is now completing his student teaching.

Question 69

A decline in self-esteem early in adolescence is most likely to occur for youngsters

A) who are noticeably overweight
B) who lose social status
C) who experience a disruption of family life
D) who experience many life changes all at once

Question 70

Children and adolescents from collectivist societies tend to report _____ levels of global self-esteem than agemates from individualistic societies because _____ .

A) lower; they value humility and are inclined to acknowledge their weaknesses
B) lower; their strong tendency to compare self accomplishments with accomplishments of peers makes them sensitive to their shortcomings
C) higher; they rarely compare their outcomes with those of peers and are less aware of their shortcomings
D) higher; when pursuing group rather than individual goals, it is easier to diffuse responsibility to others after a failure

Question 71

Fifteen-year-old Susan plans to major in pre-med in college because her parents have always told her she would make a good dentist. Susan has an idea that dentistry would be a good profession, but she has never seriously considered any alternative career, nor has she thought very much about why she might want to be a dentist (other than that dentists make good money). According to Marcia, Susan's identity status is

A) identity diffusion
B) identity foreclosure
C) moratorium
D) identity achievement

Question 72

James Marcia suggests that adolescents who simply refuse to confront the challenge of charting a life course and committing to an ideology are in a state of

A) identity diffusion
B) foreclosure
C) identity achievement
D) moratorium

Question 73

Children with high self-esteem often have parents who

A) generally avoid making evaluative comments about their behavior
B) are warm, accepting, and set clear standards for them to live up to
C) do not hold them to specific goals or rules of conduct
D) rarely allow them to participate in family decisions

Question 74

During adolescence_____ becomes increasingly important in influencing one's overall self-esteem.

A) academic self-worth
B) relational self-worth
C) physical self-worth
D) categorical self-worth

Question 75

Participation in sports has been found to _____ the self-esteem of adolescent girls by _____ .

A) foster; promoting better body images and perceived physical competencies
B) foster; promoting a stronger spirit of cooperation and teamwork
C) undermine, undermining girls' perceived physical competencies
D) undermine, promoting a competitive orientation which undermines their cooperative orientation

Question 76

One sign that peer influences on self-esteem become more apparent in adolescence is that _____ .

A) well-adjusted adolescents receive far more support from peers than from parents
B) adolescents view parental restrictions as undermining their personal freedoms and sense of self-determination
C) well-adjusted adolescents receive ample and balanced support from both parents and peers
D) adolescents begin to emphasize social goals more and engage in less social comparisons than they did as grade-school children

Question 77

Adolescent girls are more likely than adolescent boys to show declines in self-esteem because

A) they are more likely than boys to experience multiple life stressors at the same time
B) they are often less satisfied than boys with their bodies and physical appearance
C) they are bothered more than boys are by hassles with family members and peers
D) they are more likely than boys to experience multiple life stressors at the same time and they are often less satisfied than boys with their bodies and physical appearance
E) all of these

Question 78

Susan is concerned with how she compares to her peers and wonders whether she is doing as well in school as the other girls in her class. Susan is most likely

A) a 3-4-year-old nursery school student
B) an elementary school student between 7 and 9 years of age
C) raised in a culture that emphasizes cooperation and teamwork
D) abnormally competitive for anyone under the age of 14

Question 79

Studies of adolescents suggest that girls who have the lowest levels of self- esteem are those who _____ , whereas boys with low levels of self-esteem _____ .

A) are low in academic competence; are poor athletes
B) fail to win friends' approval; are poor athletes
C) fail to win friends' approval; lack romantic competence
D) lack romantic competence; fail to win friends' approval

Question 80

Given the reasons cited in your text for sex differences in declining self-esteem in adolescence, one practice that may reduce the magnitude of this sex difference might be _____ .

A) to encourage more boys to participate in sporting activities
B) to encourage more girls to participate in sporting activities
C) to encourage more boys to develop better social skills
D) to encourage more girls to develop better academic skills