Deck 8: Learning and Decision Making

Question 1

Research shows that the difference between experts and novices is almost always a function of intelligence as opposed to the more popular view that learning makes the difference.

Answer 1

False
Explanation: Research shows that the difference between experts and novices is almost always a function of learning as opposed to the more popular view that intelligence or other innate differences make the difference.

Question 2

The self-serving bias occurs when we attribute our own failures to external factors and our own successes to internal factors.

Answer 2

True
Explanation: The self-serving bias occurs when we attribute our own failures to external factors and our own successes to internal factors.

Question 3

Because of their tacit knowledge, experts sometimes cannot put into words why they know that a problem exists, why a solution will work, or how they accomplished a task.

Answer 3

True
Explanation: Because of their tacit knowledge, experts sometimes cannot put into words why they know that a problem exists, why a solution will work, or how they accomplished a task.

Question 4

The entire process of reinforcement is a continuous cycle, and the repetition of behaviors is strengthened to the degree that reinforcement continues to occur.

Question 5

Projection bias causes problems in decision making because it limits our ability to develop appropriate criteria for a decision and evaluate decisions carefully.

Question 6

Learning is moderately correlated with task performance.

Question 7

Communities of practice are groups of employees who work together and learn from one another by collaborating over an extended period of time.

Question 8

Escalation of commitment refers to the decision to continue to follow a failing course of action.

Question 9

The rational decision-making model offers a step-by-step approach to making decisions that maximizes outcomes by examining all available alternatives.

Question 10

Transfer of training occurs when the knowledge, skills, and behaviors used on the job are maintained by the learner once training ends and generalized to the workplace once the learner returns to the job.

Question 11

Learning has a weak positive effect on commitment.

Question 12

Learning refers to the process of generating and choosing from a set of alternatives to solve a problem.

Question 13

Elaine is now a division manager, but for more than a decade she was the sales manager, and she tends to view all organizational problems based on the effect they will have on the sales department. Her decisions are flawed due to projection bias.

Question 14

Tacit knowledge is the kind of information that can be easily communicated during training sessions or using written manuals.

Question 15

Under enormous pressure to make a decision, Emily ends up selecting the first acceptable solution without considering any more possibilities. Emily has engaged in satisficing behavior.

Question 16

Research has consistently shown that fixed reinforcement schedules lead to higher levels of performance than variable schedules.

Question 17

For positive reinforcement to be successful, employees needs to see a direct link between their behavior and the desired outcome.

Question 18

Those with a performance-prove orientation focus on demonstrating their competence so that others will not think poorly of them.

Question 19

Decision making reflects relatively permanent changes in an employee's knowledge and skills that result from experience.

Question 20

Company meetings tend to run long because Dmitri invariably raises irrelevant points that get everyone off track discussing something that has nothing to do with the business at hand. He seems to enjoy this, but Sandra, his manager, finds it extremely annoying. Without Dmitri knowing it, she has instructed the others to remain silent the next time he tries to get everyone talking about something unrelated to the discussion. In an effort to change Dmitri's behavior, Sandra is using the contingency of reinforcement known as extinction.

Question 21

Relatively permanent changes in an employee's knowledge or skill that result from experience are reflected in that person's

A) learning.
B) intuition.
C) expertise.
D) heuristics.
E) consistency.

Question 22

Tacit knowledge

A) is based on experience.
B) exists as general information.
C) can be learned through books.
D) involves conscious and accessible information.
E) is easily transferred through written communication.

Question 23

Eric has never had any formal training in computer science, yet everyone at the office recognizes him as a genius with hardware and software. On numerous occasions, he has repaired a piece of equipment that seemed unsalvageable or helped someone recover a document they thought was lost forever. When asked how he always seems to know just the right solution, he just shrugs and says with a laugh that if anybody spent as much time messing around with computers as he has, then they would be able to do the same thing. This is an example of

A) tacit knowledge.
B) transfer of training.
C) knowledge transfer.
D) learning orientation.
E) rational decision-making.

Question 24

________ knowledge is typically learned by employees only through experience.

A) Tacit
B) Explicit
C) Heuristic
D) Intuitive
E) Nonprogrammed

Question 25

As a soldier in the U.S. Army, Lexi underwent an extensive course of training as a combat field medic. During that time, she learned from manuals and performed exercises involving dummies and other simulation aids. A few months later, she found herself in a combat situation overseas, treating real soldiers with actual wounds. She would later tell her family that what she learned in a day on the battlefield was worth many weeks of training in school. In terms of organizational behavior, this example illustrates the difference between ________ knowledge.

A) explicit and tacit
B) general and specific
C) ordinary and esoteric
D) theoretical and practical
E) transitory and permanent

Question 26

________ knowledge is information that is relatively easily communicated and a large part of what companies teach during training sessions.

A) Tacit
B) Implied
C) Inferred
D) Inherent
E) Explicit

Question 27

________ is the idea that we learn by observing the link between our voluntary behavior and the consequences that follow it.

A) Learning orientation
B) Selective perception
C) Operant conditioning
D) Social identity theory
E) Contingencies of reinforcement

Question 28

________ is the process of generating and choosing from a set of alternatives to solve a problem.

A) Decision making
B) Knowledge transfer
C) Selective perception
D) Escalation of commitment
E) Continuous reinforcement

Question 29

________ is when an unwanted outcome is removed following a desired behavior.

A) Performance-prove orientation
B) Performance-avoid orientation
C) Behavior modeling training
D) Positive reinforcement
E) Negative reinforcement

Question 30

Although it is not easily communicated, ________ knowledge could very well be the most important aspect of what we learn in organizations.

A) nonprogrammed
B) intuitive
C) heuristic
D) explicit
E) tacit

Question 31

Organizations use four specific consequences to modify employee behavior. These are known as

A) climates for transfer.
B) communities of practice.
C) schedules of reinforcement.
D) behavior modeling training.
E) contingencies of reinforcement.

Question 32

As a team leader for C & C Engineering, Colin needs to choose the best possible candidate to head up a sensitive project. The client had worked with another engineering firm whose inexperience resulted in structural defects that need to be corrected, and now they have brought the project to Colin's firm. They want someone who can get up to speed on the project quickly and make sound decisions on the job. With little room for error, Colin's best choice for project manager would be

A) Wayne, who is known throughout the industry for his hard-nosed commitment to his ideas and his "my way or the highway" stance as a team leader.
B) Tori, who has proven to be a solid worker with the ability to work well with others, and who has shown up for work every day without fail for the past ten years.
C) Gayle, who graduated from one of the finest engineering programs in the country at the top of her class, and who has been a stellar performer with C & C ever since she joined the company two years ago.
D) Deborah, who has worked for the company for two decades and performed flawlessly, making herself known as someone who consistently delivers within her particular area of expertise.
E) Roland, who experienced a number of failures early in his career two decades ago, but went back to school and set out to learn his trade from the bottom up, taking on new and different projects along the way.

Question 33

Explicit knowledge is

A) based on experience.
B) highly personal in nature.
C) specific to certain jobs and situations.
D) easily conveyed through written or verbal communication.
E) not something that can be explained by the people who possess it.

Question 34

True learning only occurs when

A) negative behaviors are unlearned over time.
B) novices distinguish themselves from experts.
C) employees are assigned larger responsibilities.
D) changes in behavior become relatively permanent.
E) employees avoid mimicking the behaviors of experts.

Question 35

The knowledge and skills that distinguish specialists from novices is referred to as

A) learning.
B) training.
C) intuition.
D) expertise.
E) distinctiveness.

Question 36

Wes's employer has established a course of learning for him. From the standpoint of organizational behavior, this is particularly important because learning will help him to

A) find other employment.
B) make more money at his job.
C) move up the corporate ladder.
D) become a better decision maker.
E) take greater authority in group situations.

Question 37

In her job as a research analyst for a stock brokerage, Caroline spends a lot of time at her computer. Today her boss told her, "Find out everything you can about the textile industry in the Philippines," and she immediately sat down and typed a few words into a search engine. Soon she had a dossier on the subject, gleaned from her research on the Internet. The information Caroline acquired in this way is an example of ________ knowledge.

A) tacit
B) explicit
C) intuitive
D) heuristic
E) distinctive

Question 38

Research shows that the differences between experts and novices are almost always a function of

A) learning.
B) intuition.
C) expertise.
D) intelligence.
E) distinctiveness.

Question 39

Tacit knowledge is

A) readily available.
B) easily communicated.
C) highly personal in nature.
D) easy to acquire from books.
E) always conscious and accessible.

Question 40

Brad is widely acknowledged as one of the best sales trainers in the real estate business. He has often been described as having an intuitive grasp not only of real estate sales techniques, but also of the methods for teaching them. One day after a seminar, a new trainee named Tiffany approaches him and asks him to teach her how to do what he does. Dropping the friendly persona that was typical of his on-stage presence, he simply said "I can't," and walked out. Brad was

A) wrong, because he placed too great an emphasis on his own abilities and paid too little attention to the importance of being diplomatic.
B) right, because he had already spent a great deal of time teaching at the seminar, and whatever he needed to convey had already been conveyed.
C) wrong, because clearly Tiffany was eager to learn, and almost anything can be taught to someone else if that person is eager and willing enough to learn.
D) right, because it is not his job to train potential competition-especially someone of the opposite sex who might be attempting to gain an unfair advantage.
E) right, because what he does is based on experience and his personal qualities, and is probably not something he could teach someone else how to do, even if he wanted to.

Question 41

Workers are rewarded after a certain amount of time, and the length of time between reinforcement periods stays the same, with

A) a fixed ratio schedule.
B) a fixed interval schedule.
C) a variable ratio schedule.
D) continuous reinforcement.
E) a variable interval schedule.

Question 42

Employees at Pak-N-Sav, a discount grocery chain, know that they have to stay on their toes at all times. Mr. and Mrs. Kessler, the company founders, have been known to put on disguises and make unannounced visits to stores to make sure the staff is treating customers politely. This is an example of

A) a fixed ratio schedule.
B) a variable ratio schedule.
C) a fixed interval schedule.
D) continuous reinforcement.
E) a variable interval schedule.

Question 43

Jerry and his brother Joe both work in manufacturing plants, but Jerry gets a regular paycheck, whereas Joe is paid according to the number of items he produces. The difference between the way that Jerry gets paid and the way Joe gets paid is the difference between ________ schedules.

A) fixed interval and fixed ratio
B) fixed interval and variable ratio
C) variable interval and fixed ratio
D) variable interval and continuous
E) variable interval and variable ratio

Question 44

The simplest schedule of reinforcement is

A) a fixed ratio schedule.
B) a fixed interval schedule.
C) a variable ratio schedule.
D) continuous reinforcement.
E) a variable interval schedule.

Question 45

________ is the removal of positive consequences following an unwanted behavior.

A) Extinction
B) Punishment
C) Positive reinforcement
D) Negative reinforcement
E) Performance-avoid orientation

Question 46

The ________ schedule reinforces behaviors after a certain number of them have been exhibited.

A) fixed ratio
B) fixed interval
C) variable ratio
D) continuous reinforcement
E) variable interval

Question 47

Denise is a freelance writer who works with a number of clients. She used to charge by the hour, but she has now switched to charging by the page. In other words, she has moved from a ________ schedule.

A) fixed interval to a fixed ratio
B) fixed interval to a variable ratio
C) variable interval to a fixed ratio
D) variable interval to a continuous
E) variable interval to a variable ratio

Question 48

At Sound & Light, a store that sells computers, stereos, and accessories, the sales team has monthly evaluations, and the top five performers receive bonuses. This is an example of

A) a fixed ratio schedule.
B) a fixed interval schedule.
C) a variable ratio schedule.
D) continuous reinforcement.
E) a variable interval schedule.

Question 49

Thanks to donations from merchants in the community, an after-school club for disadvantaged children has introduced a new promotion: those who maintain a B average for the school year will each receive $100 in gift certificates from local businesses, such as an ice-cream parlor and a clothing store. This is an example of

A) learning orientation.
B) behavioral modeling.
C) positive reinforcement.
D) continuous reinforcement.
E) performance-prove orientation.

Question 50

The training instructor at the state police barracks told all the trainees that they had to keep their lockers secured at all times. Brandi forgot and failed to put her lock on, so when the instructor discovered this, he made her mop the bathroom and the hallway of the barracks. This is an example of

A) training.
B) extinction.
C) punishment.
D) operant conditioning.
E) negative reinforcement.

Question 51

In general, ________ should be the most common forms of reinforcement used by managers to create learning among their employees.

A) punishment and extinction
B) punishment and heuristics
C) positive reinforcement and extinction
D) punishment and negative reinforcement
E) positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement

Question 52

Soon after becoming the new manager of operations at the Cooper Motors, a local car dealership, Finn discovers that employees are coming in late to work, taking long breaks, and behaving unprofessionally while on the job. After considering the situation, he introduces a new set of guidelines, along with contingencies of reinforcement. Those who show up on time, do not exceed their allotted break schedules, and show themselves behaving professionally at all times while on duty during the next month will enjoy a steak dinner, courtesy of management. Those who fail to meet the requirements, on the other hand, will be invited to stay late for three nights in a row and attend an unpaid training session. The contingencies Finn is planning to implement-the steak dinner on the one hand and the unpaid training sessions on the other-are, respectively,

A) punishment and extinction.
B) negative reinforcement and extinction.
C) positive reinforcement and punishment.
D) punishment and negative reinforcement.
E) positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.

Question 53

In ________ a specific consequence follows each and every occurrence of a desired behavior.

A) a fixed ratio schedule
B) a fixed interval schedule
C) a variable ratio schedule
D) continuous reinforcement
E) a variable interval schedule

Question 54

The two contingencies of reinforcement that are designed to decrease undesired behaviors are

A) punishment and extinction.
B) negative reinforcement and extinction.
C) punishment and positive reinforcement.
D) punishment and performance-avoid orientation.
E) negative reinforcement and performance-avoid orientation.

Question 55

As Taryn likes to say, she may not love her job, but she loves getting paid every two weeks. Her paycheck is an example of

A) a fixed ratio schedule.
B) a fixed interval schedule.
C) a variable ratio schedule.
D) continuous reinforcement.
E) a variable interval schedule.

Question 56

One of Val's biggest challenges as the leader of a sales team is getting team members to fill out and file their paperwork properly at the end of the day. He has tried in a number of ways to get them to comply, but nothing seems to work. He does know that no one likes to lead the daily sales meeting, which is a task that revolves among the team members on a regular basis, and that gives him an idea. The best way to achieve the result he desires is to announce that employees who

A) are last to file their paperwork each day will be required to lead the sales meeting the following day, and if their paperwork is filled out incorrectly, they will have to lead the meeting the day after that, as well.
B) comply with guidelines for filing their paperwork every day for a month will be exempted from leading the sales meeting at some point in the near future.
C) file their paperwork correctly and on time five days in a row will be exempted from leading the sales meeting the next time their turn comes around.
D) turn in their paperwork as directed every day for a two-week period will be exempted from leading the sales meeting for the next two months.
E) fail to file their paperwork correctly and on time five days in a row will be required to lead the sales meeting two times in a row.

Question 57

A slot machine is an example of

A) a fixed ratio schedule.
B) a fixed interval schedule.
C) a variable ratio schedule.
D) continuous reinforcement.
E) a variable interval schedule.

Question 58

When behaviors are reinforced at random points in time, ________ is being used.

A) a fixed ratio schedule
B) a fixed interval schedule
C) a variable ratio schedule
D) continuous reinforcement
E) a variable interval schedule

Question 59

People in organizations have the ability to learn through the observation of others, according to

A) bounded rationality.
B) selective perception.
C) social learning theory.
D) behavior modeling training.
E) the rational decision-making model.

Question 60

________ is when an unwanted outcome follows an unwanted behavior.

A) Extinction
B) Punishment
C) A crisis situation
D) Operant conditioning
E) Negative reinforcement

Question 61

People with a ________ orientation focus on demonstrating their capabilities so that others will think favorably of them.

A) performance-avoid
B) performance-prove
C) programmed decision
D) rational decision-making
E) nonprogrammed decision

Question 62

Building competence is deemed more important than demonstrating competence when a person has a(n)

A) projection bias.
B) availability bias.
C) self-serving bias.
D) learning orientation.
E) performance-prove orientation.

Question 63

The concept of bounded rationality suggests that we are likely to

A) choose the first acceptable alternative.
B) evaluate all alternatives simultaneously.
C) pick the alternative that minimizes value.
D) use accurate information to evaluate alternatives.
E) develop an exhaustive list of alternatives to consider as solutions.

Question 64

________ is the process of selecting, organizing, storing, and retrieving information about the environment.

A) Intuition
B) Learning
C) Satisficing
D) Perception
E) Stereotyping

Question 65

Bounded rationality involves

A) picking the alternative that maximizes value.
B) evaluating all the alternatives simultaneously.
C) using accurate information to evaluate alternatives.
D) boiling the problem down to something that is easily understood.
E) developing an exhaustive list of alternatives to consider as solutions.

Question 66

The first step in the behavioral modeling process involves ________ processes.

A) heuristic
B) retention
C) production
D) attentional
E) reinforcement

Question 67

The leadership at Morgan Industrial Chemicals has been confronted with a crisis: someone incorrectly filed a purchase order from a key client, thus resulting in a shipment of the wrong materials. Not knowing this, the client proceeded to make use of the chemicals-with disastrous results. This has never happened to the company before, and although they have procedures for addressing various contingencies, the situation at hand requires quick thinking. The task of addressing the problem has fallen to Beth, who is an experienced manager, and she readily comes up with a solution. However, at first glance her idea sounds counterintuitive, and she needs the immediate support of her entire team to get behind her idea quickly. Therefore she should

A) let the team members know that as a manager with considerable experience, she knows what needs to be done, and therefore requires absolute allegiance.
B) explain the situation, present her solution and reasoning, point out what the team should be on the lookout for, and invite feedback from team members.
C) begin by acknowledging that her solution is one possible idea out of many, then present her proposal and ask for feedback from the team.
D) inform the team that the problem needs to be investigated, then form a study group and invite them to present their findings.
E) first see to it that the person responsible for the mistake is identified and dealt with, then take action on the problem.

Question 68

When employees observe the actions of others, learn from what they observe, and then repeat what they have observed, they are engaging in

A) learning orientation.
B) behavioral modeling.
C) positive reinforcement.
D) communities of practice.
E) performance-prove orientation.

Question 69

New, complex, and unrecognized situations call for ________ decisions.

A) rational
B) intuitive
C) nonintuitive
D) programmed
E) nonprogrammed

Question 70

People with a performance-avoid orientation focus on demonstrating their competence so that

A) others will think favorably of them.
B) others will not think poorly of them.
C) they will think favorably of themselves.
D) they will not think poorly of themselves.
E) they will not cause others to think poorly of themselves.

Question 71

________ judgments are emotionally charged, arising through quick, nonconscious, and holistic associations.

A) Ideation
B) Intuition
C) Heuristics
D) Consensus
E) Stereotyping

Question 72

When decision makers select the first acceptable alternative considered, the result is

A) extinction.
B) satisficing.
C) stereotyping.
D) optimization.
E) neutralization.

Question 73

The first step in rational decision-making is to

A) generate the list of available alternatives.
B) choose the solution that maximizes value.
C) evaluate the alternatives that are available.
D) choose a person who could evaluate the decision.
E) identify the criteria that are important in making the decision.

Question 74

Beverly is the night manager at a motel near an interstate highway. In the wee hours of the morning, a tour bus breaks down and she is inundated with more than fifty unexpected guests. Rather than go into panic mode, however, she marshals the help of one other person on duty and speeds the tour group through check-in, placing them all in rooms in less than an hour's time. Though it took some effort, the whole process went relatively smoothly for Beverly because she has check in countless guests over the years. Handling the unexpected influx of guests involved a series of ________ decisions for her.

A) rational
B) intuitive
C) nonintuitive
D) programmed
E) nonprogrammed

Question 75

The notion that decision makers simply do not have the ability or resources to process all available information and alternatives to make an optimal decision is known as

A) intuition.
B) satisficing.
C) bounded rationality.
D) social identity theory.
E) the rational decision-making model.

Question 76

As a project manager with a great deal of training in decision making, Alex is to be taken seriously when he tells his subordinates, "We're in a crisis situation." He is referring to a(n)

A) emergency that will likely make or break the company, thus creating a point of no return.
B) point of sudden change that may well cause serious damage and thus requires deliberate thinking.
C) result of evolving conditions that has the potential to erupt into complete disaster if left unchecked.
D) change, either sudden or evolving, resulting in an urgent problem that has be addressed immediately.
E) circumstance that requires educated minds to address, because intuition alone will not prove adequate.

Question 77

________ defines the tendency of people to see their environment only as it affects them and as it is consistent with their expectations.

A) Social identity theory
B) Selective perception
C) Self-serving bias
D) Projection bias
E) Consensus

Question 78

Tracy and Tonya's business has enjoyed enormous growth, and they are not sure how to handle the growing list of back orders, so they sit down together to figure out what they should do. First they list the important criteria involved, then they write down all possible solutions. Having done so, they evaluate these alternatives against the criteria they have established, and after a great deal of discussion, they choose an alternative that they believe will yield the best results. Lastly, having made a decision, they set out to implement it. This is an example of

A) knowledge transfer.
B) bounded rationality.
C) communities of practice.
D) performance-prove orientation.
E) the rational decision-making model.

Question 79

Decisions that become somewhat automatic because people's knowledge allows them to recognize and identify a situation and the course of action that needs to be taken are known as ________ decisions.

A) rational
B) intuitive
C) nonintuitive
D) programmed
E) nonprogrammed

Question 80

________ is the last step of behavioral modeling.

A) Review
B) Reinforcement
C) Retention
D) Production
E) Attentional process