Deck 12: Problem Solving

Question 1

Newell and Simon were early pioneers in designing computer programs that could solve problems. Their research program was based on the idea that problem solving is a process that involves

A) insight.
B) algorithms.
C) parity.
D) search.

Answer 1

search.

Question 2

The typical purpose of subgoals is to

A) solve insight problems.
B) move the solver directly from the initial state to the goal state.
C) bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state.
D) avoid the need to perform means-end analysis.

Answer 2

bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state.

Question 3

The elements of the problem space include all of the following EXCEPT

A) initial state.
B) operators.
C) goal state.
D) intermediate states.

Answer 3

operators.

Question 4

In the two-string problem, tying the pliers to one of the strings best represents a(n) _________________ state.

A) functional fixedness
B) goal
C) intermediate
D) initial

Question 5

Holly was in her mother-in-law's kitchen preparing lunch for the family. When she was ready to dish up the soup, she searched all the cupboards and drawers for a ladle but couldn't find one. She decided to wait until her mother-in-law returned to ask her where the ladle was, leaving the soup in the stove pot. Her mother-in-law later explained that the ladle had been broken, so she told Holly to use a coffee mug to "spoon" the soup into bowls. Holly's ability to solve the "dish up the soup" problem was hindered by which of the following obstacles?

A) Discriminability
B) Perseveration
C) Divergent thinking
D) Functional fixedness

Question 6

Gestalt psychologists consider problem solving as a process involving

A) reorganization or restructuring.
B) multiple goal states.
C) sensory operators.
D) continuity and form.

Question 7

Which of the following provides the best example of functional fixedness?

A) Using a pair of pliers as a paperweight
B) Using a tire as a football practice target
C) Using a juice glass as a container for orange juice
D) Using a wine bottle as a vase

Question 8

Which of the following is not part of a complete definition of a problem?

A) Is difficult
B) Involves obstacles between one's current state and a desired goal
C) Has one correct answer
D) The solution is not obvious

Question 9

Illustrative of functional fixedness, people are more likely to solve the candle problem if

A) fewer tacks are provided.
B) pliers are also presented.
C) the box is empty.
D) the candle is already lit.

Question 10

The circle problem, in which the task is to determine the length of a line inside a circle, was proposed to illustrate

A) how analogies can be used to solve problems.
B) means-end analysis.
C) representation and restructuring.
D) the problem space.

Question 11

Janet is alone in a room that contains a chair and a shelf with a book resting on top. She attempts to retrieve the book, but the shelf is a foot above her reach. How will Janet retrieve the book? Psychologists would NOT classify this scenario as a problem because

A) the solution is immediately obvious.
B) there is an obstacle between the present state and the goal state.
C) the initial state is not clearly defined.
D) the goal state is not clearly defined.

Question 12

In the Tower of Hanoi problem, the _________________ state involves having three discs stacked on the left peg, with the middle and right pegs empty.

A) transitory
B) goal
C) intermediate
D) initial

Question 13

Actions that take the problem from one state to another are known as

A) intermediate states.
B) subgoals.
C) operators.
D) mental sets.

Question 14

Functional fixedness would be LOWEST for a(n)

A) novel object.
B) familiar object.
C) frequently used object.
D) object with a specific function.

Question 15

Insight refers to

A) prior learning facilitating problem solving.
B) prior learning hindering problem solving.
C) the tendency to respond in a certain manner, based on past experience.
D) the sudden realization of a problem's solution.

Question 16

The water-jug problem demonstrates that one consequence of having a procedure that does provide a solution to a problem is that, if well-learned, it may prevent us from

A) seeing more efficient solutions to the problem.
B) being able to solve other problems at all.
C) understanding why the procedure works successfully.
D) discriminating between well- and ill-defined problems.

Question 17

Warmth judgments on nearness to a solution _________________ prior to the solution of an insight problem and _________________prior to the solution of a non-insight problem.

A) gradually rise; gradually rise
B) gradually rise; rise suddenly just
C) rise suddenly just; gradually rise
D) vary unpredictably; vary unpredictably

Question 18

Which problem provides an example of how functional fixedness can hinder solution of a problem?

A) Tower of Hanoi problem
B) Two-string problem
C) Mutilated checkerboard problem
D) The radiation problem

Question 19

Metcalfe and Wiebe gave participants problems to solve and asked them to make "warmth" judgments every 15 seconds to indicate how close they felt they were to a solution. The purpose of this experiment was to

A) demonstrate a difference between how people solve insight and non-insight problems.
B) show how people progress through the problem space as they solve a problem.
C) show that some problems are easier to solve than others.
D) measure the time-course of solving well-defined versus ill-defined problems.

Question 20

Amber lives in a housing development between two parallel streets that both connect to a freeway. She usually takes the street to the south when heading southbound on the freeway to work, but that street is closed for repairs for three months. Amber takes the street to the north during that time. After the street to the south is re-opened, she continues to take the street to the north, even though it is a slightly longer route. Continuing to take the street to the north represents

A) a single dissociation.
B) a source problem.
C) a mental set.
D) convergent thinking.

Question 21

Gick and Holyoak consider which of the following to be the most difficult step to achieve in the process of analogical problem solving?

A) Noticing that there is an analogous relationship between problems because most participants need prompting before they notice a connection
B) Mapping corresponding parts between the problems because the elements are difficult to identify
C) Applying the mapping to generate a parallel solution because of the difficulty in generalizing from one problem to another
D) Solving the problem through reorganization because past experience can make it more difficult to reorganize a problem

Question 22

Which of the following statements does NOT apply to the results of research on differences between how experts and novices solve problems?

A) Experts possess more knowledge about their fields than novices.
B) Experts often organize problems differently than novices, based on principles.
C) Experts often spend more time analyzing problems than novices.
D) Being an expert in one field can transfer to better problem solving in another field.

Question 23

The analogical paradox refers to problem-solving differences between

A) experts and novices.
B) laboratory and real-world settings.
C) experimental groups and control groups.
D) well- and ill-defined problems.

Question 24

When the process of analogical problem solving was applied to the fortress and radiation problems, which of the following represented the mapping step of this process?

A) Likening the dangerous mines to the dangerous tumor
B) Developing schemas for each individual problem
C) Connecting the fortress with the tumor
D) Generalizing from groups of soldiers to using many rays to solve the problem

Question 25

A researcher records a brainstorming session in an industrial research and development department rather than in an artificial laboratory setting. Later, she analyzes the recorded discussions, identifying certain problem-solving techniques. This research is an example of_________________ research.

A) Think-aloud protocol
B) Situationally produced mental set
C) Environmental functional fixedness
D) In vivo problem solving

Question 26

The radiation problem can be solved using

A) representation and restructuring.
B) means-end analysis.
C) warmth judgments.
D) mental set.

Question 27

The ability to shift experience from one problem-solving situation to a similar problem is known as

A) analogical encoding.
B) analogical transfer.
C) insight.
D) in vivo problem solving.

Question 28

The text's discussion of the research on in vivo problem solving highlighted that _________________ play(s) an important role in solving scientific problems.

A) analogies
B) insight
C) flexibility
D) subgoals

Question 29

Considering the fortress and the radiation problems together, the fortress problem represents the _________________ problem.

A) source
B) target
C) exemplar
D) prototype

Question 30

Kaplan and Simon's experiment presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. The main purpose of their experiment was to demonstrate that

A) people arrive at the solution to an insight problem suddenly, but proceed more methodically toward the solution of a non-insight problem.
B) a person's mental set can hinder finding a solution to a problem.
C) people often have to backtrack within the problem space to arrive at an answer to a problem.
D) the way the problem is represented can influence the ease of problem solving.

Question 31

The best description of the purpose of think-aloud protocols is that they are used to determine

A) what information a person is attending to while solving a problem.
B) which people can be considered more creative in ability to solve problems.
C) how to develop computer programs that best mimic human problem solving.
D) how a person's expertise increases his or her likelihood of solving a problem, relative to a beginner.

Question 32

In Kaplan and Simon's experiment, they presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. Participants in the _________________ group had the fastest response time.

A) blank
B) color
C) black and pink
D) bread and butter

Question 33

Dr. Chan is doing a follow-up study to the mutilated checkerboard problem experiment. In this new study, participants solve the following shoe problem before tackling the checkerboard problem. By doing this, Dr. Chan is studying the effect of _________________ on problem solving.
The shoe problem: A first-grade class is using a trampoline in gym class, so all the children have removed their shoes, which are all jumbled in a large pile. One of the students, Miguel, is leaving early, so the teacher tells him to grab his shoes and report to the lobby. In his hurry, Miguel grabs two identical left-footed, size 6 red sneakers and runs to his mother still sock-footed. Will the remaining students be able to shoe-up with the remaining shoes without getting a foot-ache?

A) analogies
B) anaphoric interference
C) perceptual segregation
D) divergent thinking

Question 34

The radiation problem was used in your text to illustrate the role of _________________ in problem solving.

A) means-end analysis
B) functional fixedness
C) analogy
D) mental set

Question 35

In analogical problem solving, the _________________ problem is the problem that an individual is trying to solve, and the _________________ problem, which has been solved in the past, is used as a guide for reaching that solution.

A) source; target
B) target; source
C) prototype; target
D) exemplar; source

Question 36

Intermediate states can be created by

A) restructuring initial states.
B) restructuring goal states.
C) creating operators.
D) creating subgoals.

Question 37

The analogy that makes the solution to the mutilated checkerboard problem obvious is the _________________ problem.

A) light bulb
B) Tower of Hanoi
C) radiation
D) Russian marriage

Question 38

Experts categorize problems based on

A) how similar the objects in the problem are.
B) general principles that problems share.
C) surface and deep structures.
D) event-specific knowledge.

Question 39

Experts _________________ than novices.

A) spend less time analyzing problems
B) are better at reasoning in general
C) are more likely to be open to new ways of looking at problems
D) take a more effective approach to organizing the solution to a problem

Question 40

Gick and Holyoak proposed that analogical problem solving involves the following three steps:

A) restructuring, searching, and simulating.
B) noticing, mapping, and applying.
C) surfacing, structuring, and generalizing.
D) well-defining, insighting, and means-end analysis.

Question 41

Subgoals serve a key role in which of the following?

A) Creative cognition
B) Means-end analysis
C) Functional fixedness
D) Volitional daydreaming

Question 42

Which term best describes the process of brainstorming?

A) Compound
B) Divergent
C) Preinventive
D) Mindful

Question 43

Which of the following is the core concept underlying the Gestalt perspective on problems?

A) Analogy
B) Search
C) Insight
D) Representation

Question 44

In its discussion of expertise and problem solving, your text identifies the kind of scientists who are most likely to make revolutionary discoveries in their fields. This particular discussion suggests that _________________ may be more important than _________________ in creative thinking.

A) experience; structure
B) structure; experience
C) flexibility; experience
D) experience; flexibility

Question 45

________ occurs when a person gives up trying to solve a tough problem and then suddenly comes up with the answer while doing something else.

A) Mindfulness
B) Insight
C) Incubation
D) Daydreaming

Question 46

Ali works for Citrus Squeeze, a company that makes orange juice. Sales of their calcium-enhanced OJ have been poor, and the product was cancelled. His factory still had three cases of cartons, and Ali was told he could take them if he wanted them. With the cartons, Ali made several birdfeeders for his backyard and also planted tree seedlings in some of them; he used the remaining ones to build a "fort" for his four-year-old son. Ali's use of the cartons represents

A) convergent thinking.
B) divergent thinking.
C) insight.
D) hierarchical organization.

Question 47

Describe the three steps involved in analogical problem solving. Which step is the most difficult to achieve, and what is the evidence that this is the most difficult step?

Question 48

Research conducted by Chi and Snyder demonstrated that the Gestalt-style perceptual grouping of items occurs in which region of the brain?

A) Parietal lobe
B) Prefrontal cortex
C) Temporal lobe
D) Cingulate gyrus

Question 49

Describe in detail the differences between the way experts and nonexperts go about solving problems. In your answer, highlight the advantages and disadvantages to being an expert in a field.

Question 50

The process of analogical encoding is focused on ________.

A) finding similarity
B) generating ideas
C) fostering insight
D) creating value

Question 51

Phoenix Decorating Company is responsible for designing and building many of the floral floats seen in the Tournament of Roses Parade every New Year's Day. Phoenix's designers start preparing the floats for the next year's parade soon after the first of the year. For each corporate sponsor, Phoenix gets their best advertising team members, and they sit in a room for several hours throwing out every idea they can come up with, no matter how good or bad it is. After a substantial list has been created, they then go through every idea and rate its merits or deficits, until they come up with the best idea to pitch to the corporate sponsor. This process demonstrates

A) creative cognition.
B) group brainstorming.
C) convergent thinking.
D) structural analyses.

Question 52

Finke's "creating an object" experiment had participants create a novel object by combining parts. Once they created an object, they were given the name of an object category and instructed to interpret their creation as a practical object or device within that category. Finke used the term preinventive forms to describe the

A) object parts.
B) novel objects before a function was described.
C) practical objects within the category.
D) inventions rated high in both practicality and originality.

Question 53

Which of the following correctly pairs a problem-solving stage with a process under Basadur's model?

A) Problem Formulation: Fact Finding
B) Solution Implementation: Idea Finding
C) Problem Generation: Evaluation and Selection
D) Problem Solving: Planning

Question 54

In the information-processing approach to problem solving, an operator is most closely associated with ________.

A) analysis
B) progress
C) transfer
D) insight

Question 55

In the movie Apollo 13, astronauts aboard a damaged spacecraft have to build a carbon dioxide filter out of random items that are aboard the ship with them. If they do not, they will all die rapidly of carbon dioxide poisoning. The fact that they are able to do so with the help of experts on Earth is similar to the _________________ approach developed by Ronald Finke.

A) convergent thinking
B) creative cognition
C) divergent thinking
D) the means-end analysis

Question 56

Compare and contrast functional fixedness and mental set. Give examples of each in the context of problem solving to support your thinking.

Question 57

Which of the following is not true about divergent thinking?

A) It is open-ended.
B) It has a large number of potential solutions.
C) It is the cornerstone of creativity.
D) It has a single correct answer.

Question 58

Which of the following is NOT commonly associated with people who are considered highly creative?

A) Daydreaming
B) Analysis
C) Mindfulness
D) Solitude

Question 59

Finke's creating an object studies show that people were more likely to come up with creative uses for preinventive objects if they

A) made the objects themselves.
B) had received training in creative thinking.
C) had been preselected as "creative" individuals.
D) were told they were expected to be creative.

Question 60

Which term best describes the task of factoring the equation 9x2 + 5x - 7 = 4x2 - 2x + 8?

A) Divergent
B) Functional
C) Analytical
D) Analogical

Question 61

Describe methods a person can use to increase his or her creativity. If you use any of these methods, give an example of how it has been helpful. If not, which method do you think would be most useful for you and why?

Question 62

From a cognitive psychology perspective, explain why it might be beneficial for a company to hire recent graduates rather than people who have lengthy experience in the company's field of business.

Question 63

What did Newell and Simon mean when stating that problem solving is a search? Be sure to use concepts and terms from the text to support your answer.

Question 64

What are potential drawbacks to group brainstorming? What strategies could be used to address these issues?