Deck 9: The Quest for Meaning

Question 1

it comes to religious beliefs and private religious activities such as engaging in prayers, meditating, or reading sacred texts, cross-sectional studies show that those in which of the following age groups would be likely to participate the most?

A) over 50
B) 30-49
C) 18-29
D) 10-18

Answer 1

A

Question 2

a dinner party, you hear someone make the following statement: "Religion doesn't do any good for anyone. Religious people are no healthier, and die at the same ages as do nonreligious people." According to the evidence given in the text, how should you reply?

A) "You're right. The research evidence shows no relationship between religion and health."
B) "The research allows an even stronger statement: highly religious people are actually less healthy than are irreligious people."
C) "You're quite wrong. The research evidence shows that religious people are healthier and live longer."
D) "You can't make that statement. There is no research evidence one way or the other about the relationship between religious involvement and health."

Answer 2

C

Question 3

Which age group of adults in the United States shows the highest level of participation in formal religious activities, such as church attendance?

A) 20-year-olds
B) 35-year-olds
C) 50-year-olds
D) 65-year-olds

Answer 3

D

Question 4

"There are lots of ways to think about God and to understand God. My own way satisfies me, but I accept the fact that there are other approaches that work for other people." Which of Fowler's stages of faith does this statement reflect?

A) synthetic-conventional
B) individuative-reflective
C) conjunctive
D) universalizing

Question 5

Which step in Underhill's description of mysticism seems to correspond to the usual endpoint in Fowler's and Kohlberg's theory?

A) awakening
B) purification
C) illumination
D) unity

Question 6

Which of the following is most accurate?

A) Less than half of people in the U.S. state that they believe in God.
B) There has been a gradual decline in the number of empirical journal articles on religion or spirituality in the past few decades with the shift toward brain science.
C) Overall attendance and membership in religious organizations have dropped in the U.S. over the last 50 years.
D) Spirituality and religiosity are basically the same constructs and are usually measured with the same questionnaires.

Question 7

used to like to go to church. The pomp and circumstance really appealed to me, and I liked sitting there in the pew with my family. But now I really can't stand all those rituals. They seem so empty to me-just so much show to satisfy the ignorant. So I don't go anymore." What level of faith in Fowler's system is reflected in this statement?

A) conjunctive
B) universalizing
C) individuative -reflective
D) conventional

Question 8

way of looking at shifts from preconventional to conventional to postconventional levels of reasoning is to see them as a process of _________, a movement outward from the self.

A) accommodation
B) decentering
C) coming to an evolutionary truce
D) postformal thinking

Question 9

Kohlberg's theory of moral development, the conventional level is made up of 2 stages: the stage of "good-boy or good-girl orientation" and the stage of _______.

A) social contract
B) social order maintaining orientation
C) individualism and instrumental purpose orientation
D) universal ethical principles

Question 10

Bjorklund noted that there is an increase in spirituality during adulthood, but the timing depends on:

A) income level
B) educational level
C) gender
D) geographic region

Question 11

Women attend religious services at higher rates than men

A) at all ages.
B) in only certain religions
C) in the United States, but not in most other countries.
D) in the southern part of the United States, but not other parts of this country.

Question 12

Results from longitudinal studies of moral judgment show most clearly that _______.

A) moral development does not occur in the clear stages that Kohlberg describes
B) children and adolescents shift from one stage of moral reasoning to another, following the sequence described by Kohlberg
C) average scores on moral development reasoning move upward in stages, but individuals move up and down quite frequently
D) stage-like development of moral reasoning occurs only among children and adolescents growing up in western cultures

Question 13

effects of religiousness/spirituality are found in adults in U.S. studies?

A) higher cortisol levels
B) higher levels of depression and anxiety because people often become more spiritual when there is a problem in their lives.
C) longer life expectancy
D) lower levels of cardiac deaths, but only among African Americans

Question 14

Fifteen-year-old Jack, when asked about various moral dilemmas, says "Well, I think if my parents think something is right, it must be okay." In Kohlberg's category system, Jack is reasoning at the _______.

A) hedonistic level
B) preconventional level
C) conventional level
D) principled level

Question 15

a dinner party, you hear someone make the following statement: "Religion doesn't do any good for anyone. Religious people are no healthier, and die at the same ages as do nonreligious people." According to the evidence given in the text, how should you reply?

A) "You're right. The research evidence shows no relationship between religion and health."
B) "The research allows an even stronger statement: highly religious people are actually less healthy than are irreligious people."
C) "You're quite wrong. The research evidence shows that religious people are healthier and live longer."
D) "You can't make that statement. There is no research evidence one way or the other about the relationship between religious involvement and health."

Question 16

process of self-transcendence is best described as:

A) coming to know oneself as part of a larger whole that exists beyond the physical body and personal history.
B) the outward signs of spirituality.
C) reasoning about what is right and wrong.
D) meaning found through creative and leisure activities.

Question 17

cultures support the tradition that spirituality and wisdom increase with age. Which of the following terms defines the concept that meaning systems increase in quality as we age?

A) transubstantiation
B) individuative-reflective
C) conjunctive appeal
D) gerotransendence

Question 18

Which age group of adults in the United States shows the highest level of participation in formal religious activities, such as church attendance?

A) 20-year-olds
B) 35-year-olds
C) 50-year-olds
D) 65-year-olds

Question 19

most appropriate form of study to test Kohlberg's theory of the development of moral reasoning is _______.

A) longitudinal
B) cross-sectional
C) cross-lag
D) correlational

Question 20

Kohlberg's theory of moral development, the conventional level is made up of 2 stages: the stage of "good-boy or good-girl orientation" and the stage of _______.

A) social contract
B) social order maintaining orientation
C) individualism and instrumental purpose orientation
D) universal ethical principles

Question 21

3 levels of moral reasoning described by Kohlberg are _______.

A) preconventional, conventional, and postconventional
B) unconventional, conventional, and postconventional
C) preconventional, conformist, and individualistic
D) preconventional, conventional, and unconventional

Question 22

"There are lots of ways to think about God and to understand God. My own way satisfies me, but I accept the fact that there are other approaches that work for other people." Which of Fowler's stages of faith does this statement reflect?

A) synthetic-conventional
B) individuative-reflective
C) conjunctive
D) universalizing

Question 23

used to like to go to church. The pomp and circumstance really appealed to me, and I liked sitting there in the pew with my family. But now I really can't stand all those rituals. They seem so empty to me-just so much show to satisfy the ignorant. So I don't go anymore." What level of faith in Fowler's system is reflected in this statement?

A) conjunctive
B) universalizing
C) individuative-reflective
D) synthetic-conventional

Question 24

"Generally you should obey the law, because that is one of the conditions for living in society. But if a law is immoral, you may need to disobey it-but be prepared to take the consequences." What level of moral reasoning in Kohlberg's system is reflected in this statement?

A) hedonistic level
B) preconventional level
C) conventional level
D) principled level

Question 25

According to Fowler's theory of faith development, _______.

A) there are two stages in the development of faith
B) an individual's faith typically gets weaker with increasing age
C) all individuals have some kind of faith, whether they participate in organized religion or not
D) most adults have no specific faith as such

Question 26

highest stage of faith Fowler proposes he calls _______.

A) conjunctive
B) universalizing
C) synthetic -conventional
D) individuative-reflective

Question 27

Kohlberg proposed that individuals move through a sequence of stages of moral reasoning, each stage growing out of, but superseding, the one that came before. His theory is considered an extension of ________ theory.

A) Loevinger's
B) Levinson's
C) Piaget's
D) Pearlin's

Question 28

Which level or levels of moral reasoning are most commonly found among adults in their 20s and 30s?

A) preconventional
B) conventional
C) principled
D) Conventional and principled are found equally often.

Question 29

Results from longitudinal studies of moral judgment show most clearly that _______.

A) moral development does not occur in the clear stages that Kohlberg describes
B) children and adolescents shift from one stage of moral reasoning to another, following the sequence described by Kohlberg
C) average scores on moral development reasoning move upward in stages, but individuals move up and down quite frequently
D) stage-like development of moral reasoning occurs only among children and adolescents growing up in Western cultures

Question 30

Teresa, who is in her early 30s, was arrested after participating in a sit-in as part of a protest march. She says, "I know what I did is against the law; 99 percent of the time I think a person should obey the law, because otherwise we'd have chaos. But sometimes laws are wrong, and I have to disobey them in order to try to change them." In Kohlberg's category system, Teresa is reasoning at the _______.

A) hedonistic level
B) preconventional level
C) conventional level
D) principled level

Question 31

According to Fowler's stages of faith development, what stage is, most typically, in its ascendance in adolescence or early adulthood?

A) individuative-reflective
B) synthetic-conventional
C) conjunctive
D) universalizing

Question 32

Miguel, who is 22 years old, thinks that breaking the law is always wrong, even if it is done in the name of civil disobedience-such as to try to change a law that discriminates against Hispanics. In Kohlberg's category system, Miguel is reasoning at the _______.

A) hedonistic level
B) preconventional level
C) conventional level
D) principled level

Question 33

Which of the following has been used as an argument against Kohlberg's theory of the development of moral reasoning?

A) Kohlberg is talking only about an ethic of fairness, and ignores other aspects of moral reasoning.
B) Cross-cultural data fail to support the hypothesized sequence of development.
C) Too few adults reason at the principled level to make it worth talking about.
D) When tested longitudinally, subjects move down as often as they move up in the sequence of reasoning.

Question 34

try to do things that I think my mom and dad will approve of. Their opinion really matters to me." In Kohlberg's category system, this is an example of ______ reasoning.

A) hedonistic
B) preconventional
C) conventional
D) principled

Question 35

have recently found myself very much interested in the beliefs of others and have been reading about Eastern religions. My reading has not changed my own basic beliefs, but I find it fascinating and very broadening." What level of faith in Fowler's system is reflected in this statement?

A) conjunctive
B) universalizing
C) individuative-reflective
D) synthetic-conventional

Question 36

Fowler's system of faith development, which of the following stages is the final stage, if one can reach it, the optimal form of faith in old age, when issues of integrity and meaning become still more dominant ?

A) intuitive-projective conjunctive
B) universalizing faith
C) synthetic-conventional
D) individuative-reflective

Question 37

most appropriate form of study to test Kohlberg's theory of the development of moral reasoning is _______.

A) longitudinal
B) cross-sectional
C) cross-lag
D) correlational

Question 38

grew up in the Baptist church, but when I went off to college, I really had to question all the ideas I'd been given as a child and as a teenager. For a while I called myself an atheist. But now I find myself drawn back to the Baptists. It just seems to me that the church offers answers to questions I've been asking myself." Which of Fowler's stages of faith does this statement most reflect?

A) synthetic-conventional
B) individuative-reflective
C) conjunctive
D) universalizing

Question 39

Fifteen-year-old Jack, when asked about various moral dilemmas, says "Well, I think if my parents think something is right, it must be okay." In Kohlberg's category system, Jack is reasoning at the _______.

A) hedonistic level
B) preconventional level
C) conventional level
D) principled level

Question 40

grew up in the Baptist church, and I'm still a Baptist. My ideas have really not changed at all. I find comfort by going to church; I find comfort in the Bible. It all seems pretty clear to me." Which of Fowler's stages of faith does this statement most reflect?

A) synthetic-conventional
B) individuative-reflective
C) conjunctive
D) universalizing

Question 41

Which of the following is NOT one of Underhill's stages of mystical experience?

A) awakening
B) purification
C) abandonment
D) illumination

Question 42

stage in Kohlberg's system of moral development, characterized by a unity orientation, appears to correspond most closely to what Maslow calls "peak experiences"?

A) Stage 7
B) Stage 6
C) Stage 5
D) Stage 4

Question 43

Which step in Underhill's description of mysticism corresponds to the usual endpoint in Fowler's theory?

A) awakening
B) purification
C) illumination
D) unity

Question 44

Describe the stages of mystical experience as outlined by Underhill. How can these stages be linked to theories of moral reasoning or faith development?

Question 45

List and describe the three levels of Kohlberg's stages of moral development. Include a sample reasoning statement for each.

Question 46

Briefly describe the difference between Stage 5 (Social contract orientation) and Stage 6 (Individual principles of conscience orientation) in Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning.

Question 47

Transition from an integrated to a self-transcendent stage usually involves _______.

A) therapy
B) meditation or prayer
C) reading about other faiths or religions
D) attending college or leaving home for other reasons

Question 48

Which particular life experience has been most often associated with reports of transitions from "conformist" to "individualistic" stages of faith or moral reasoning?

A) therapy
B) meditation or prayer
C) near-death experience
D) attending college

Question 49

Describe Fowler's theory of faith development.

Question 50

According to the Gurin and Brim model, which of the following life experiences would be most likely to lead to significant change in adults' meaning systems?

A) marrying at age 23
B) having a first child at 40
C) retirement at 65
D) the death of one's father at the age of 75
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

Question 51

List at least three different life experiences that might trigger a transition from one stage of moral or faith development to another.

Question 52

Which of Fowler's stages of faith is most parallel to the level of belongingness and love needs in Maslow's theory?

A) universalizing
B) synthetic-conventional
C) conjunctive
D) individuative -reflective

Question 53

Which of the following stages in Loevinger's theory of ego development most closely corresponds to the stage of synthetic-conventional faith in Fowler's model?

A) conformist
B) self-protective
C) autonomous
D) conscientious

Question 54

The metaphor of a "journey" dominates most thinking about spiritual development or development of meaning systems. Suggest and discuss one other metaphor that might be used.

Question 55

Briefly describe the basic polarity Kegan proposes, and discuss how that concept may be useful as a synthesizing concept in tying together theories of both personality development and the growth of meaning.

Question 56

stage in Loevinger's model of personality development most closely corresponds to Kohlberg's level of conventional reasoning?

A) conformist
B) self-protective
C) autonomous
D) conscientious

Question 57

Briefly describe the effects of religiosity on health.

Question 58

Kegan proposes that development is governed by the existence of a basic polarity of motives or needs, between _______.

A) sexual versus aggressive motives
B) love versus hate
C) connection versus independence
D) mundane versus exalted

Question 59

4 in Underhill's stages of mystical experiences involves a fuller turn inward, back toward separateness called ________.

A) dark night of the soul
B) alienation
C) disassociation
D) consolidation

Question 60

Which stage in Fowler's theory of faith development most closely corresponds to the stage of social contract reasoning in Kohlberg's theory of moral development?

A) universalizing
B) conjunctive
C) synthetic -conventional
D) individuative-reflective

Question 61

How might you design an experiment to determine whether older people are more spiritual because of their age or because of the adversity they have faced? What do you hypothesize about the results?

Question 62

Compare and contrast two fictitious individuals, one in the general stage of individuality and one in the general stage of integration, using two of the following theories: Loevinger's, Fowler's, Maslow's, and/or Kohlberg's. Provide detail about moral reasoning, personality development, and applied examples of the individuals' choices and behaviors.

Question 63

Gary Reker finds that older adults in his cross-sectional study place more emphasis on "collectivism" and on "self-transcendent" meaning.
a. How do these findings fit with the possible shared changes in personality in later adulthood discussed in the text?
b. How could you account for Reker's findings based on cohort differences?

Question 64

A criticism that is often leveled against Loevinger, Kohlberg, and Fowler is that the techniques they use to measure stage development are heavily verbal, so that better educated or more verbal adults are likely to score higher on the scales. How could you reply to this criticism if you were one of these theorists? What sort of evidence would you have to provide to counter such a criticism?

Question 65

Suppose you were interested in testing the basic hypotheses in Fowler's theory of faith development. Briefly describe a study you could do that would provide such a test, and indicate just how the results should come out if Fowler is correct.

Question 66

What explanations could you suggest for women attending religious services more frequently than men? How does this fit with other gender differences you have studied in this book?

Question 67

Briefly describe Carol Gilligan's central argument against Kohlberg's model of moral development.

Question 68

Read the following moral dilemma, how might an adult make a moral decision that reflects the post conventional level (or principled) of reasoning?

Question 69

What is it about attending college that seems to be influential in triggering a shift to an individualistic mode of reasoning or meaning? Is (or was) your own college experience like this?