Although Alarm Calling Benefits the Whole Group, It Cannot Be

Multiple Choice

Although alarm calling benefits the whole group, it cannot be explained by group selection because

A) callers make themselves conspicuous to the predators, but calling costs little in terms of individual fitness.
B) calling reduces the risk of mortality for everyone who hears the call, changing the frequency of callers and noncallers in the population, because everyone benefits.
C) noncallers benefit from the alarm call and will have higher fitness than the callers, so selection will suppress alarm calling.
D) callers and noncallers have the same relative fitness.