Which of the Following Is True of Instrumentation Threats

Multiple Choice

Which of the following is true of instrumentation threats?

A) They are the same as testing threats.
B) They occur only when using mechanical instruments (e.g., blood pressure cuffs, scales) .
C) They can be avoided with one-group, pretest/posttest designs.
D) They are only problematic in observational research.
E) None of the above are true.