Roy Is Having Trouble Passing His Calculus Course

Multiple Choice

Roy is having trouble passing his calculus course. No matter how hard he studies, he cannot seem to pass a calculus test. Eventually, Roy gives up and stops studying or even coming to calculus class. Roy's behavior can be explained as an example of:

A) the partial reinforcement effect.
B) classical conditioning.
C) biological preparedness.
D) learned helplessness.