Deck 10: Controlling Posture and Locomotion

Question 1

All of the following are true statements about reflexes, except.

A) reflex circuits contain both excitatory and inhibitory neurons
B) reflexes are involuntary
C) reflexes are not learned behaviors
D) reflex circuits can have multiple effectors
E) the strength of a reflex can change with different stimuli

Answer 1

C

Question 2

An officer might perform a pupil reaction test by shining a flashlight into the eyes of a motorist. What is the best explanation for why this test is appropriate for identifying impaired drivers?

A) If a pupil dilates to more than twice it's size, part of the circuitry mediating the papillary reflex can be assumed to be impaired. Because this circuitry is affected by various drugs and alcohol, it might be indicative of an impaired driver.
B) If a pupil fails to dilate in the bright light, part of the circuitry mediating the papillary reflex can be assumed to be impaired. Because this circuitry is affected by various drugs and alcohol, it might be indicative of an impaired driver.
C) If a pupil fails to constrict in the bright light, part of the circuitry mediating the papillary reflex can be assumed to be impaired. Because this circuitry is affected by various drugs and alcohol, it might be indicative of an impaired driver.
D) If the flashlight reveals the driver's eyes to be bloodshot, it might be indicative of an impaired driver.

Answer 2

C

Question 3

Refer to the neuronal circuitry of papillary constriction and dilation in Figure 10.1. In the text Which reaction is more of a sympathetic nervous system response?

A) pupillary dilation
B) pupillary constriction
C) both pupillary dilation and constriction
D) neither pupillary dilation or constriction

Answer 3

A

Question 4

Explain why miners that spend large amounts of time in very dim places might have pupils that are especially sensitive to light.

Question 5

Compare the eye blink reflex to the leg withdrawal reflex and identify 3 similarities and 3 differences between the two.

Question 6

Which of the following reflexes is the most rapid?

A) vestibulocollic reflex
B) eye blink reflex
C) leg withdrawal reflex
D) vestibulo-ocular reflex
E) crossed extensor reflex

Question 7

When you experience a leg withdrawal reflex when you step on a sharp object excitatory/ inhibitory (circle one) signals stimulate motor neurons synapsing on the quadriceps and excitatory/ inhibitory (circle one) signals stimulate motor neurons synapsing on the hamstrings.

Question 8

Congenital analgesia, is a rare condition where a person does not have a perception of pain. Which of the following reflexes might be most affected by this loss of sensation?

A) conditioned eye blink reflex
B) leg withdrawal reflex
C) cross extensor reflex
D) vestibulocollic reflex
E) none of the above

Question 9

The main reflex pathway that underlies the ability to walk is the

A) quadriceps stretch reflex
B) leg withdrawal reflex
C) vestibulocollic reflex
D) crossed extensor reflex
E) all of the above

Question 10

Refer to the diagram below and correctly identify if the synapses labeled a and b are excitatory or inhibitory.

A) a is excitatory and b is inhibitory
B) b is excitatory and a is inhibitory
C) both a and b are excitatory
D) both a and b are inhibitory
E) a and b can be excitatory or inhibitory depending on the strength of the stimulus

Question 11

What is the minimum number of neurons necessary for a stretch reflex?

A) 2: one sensory neuron and one motor neuron
B) 3: one sensory neuron, one interneuron, and one motor neuron
C) 4: one sensory neuron, one inhibitory neuron, and 2 motor neurons
D) 5: 2 sensory neurons, one inhibitory neurons, and 2 motor neurons
E) The number of neurons in the stretch reflex depends on the strength of the stimulus.

Question 12

In the vestibulo-ocular reflex, the eyes move in the __________direction as the head.

Question 13

Recreate the image in Figure 10.7 In the text illustrating the neural pathways of the optokinetic reflex but include the inhibitory projections to the left eye lateral rectus and right eye medial rectus. Explain the purpose of these additional projections in this reflex.

Question 14

Which of the following reflexes are independent of visual signals?

A) optocollic reflex
B) vestibulo-ocular reflex
C) vestibulocollic reflex
D) b and c
E) all of the above

Question 15

Match each reflex with it's appropriate function:
-_____stabilization of the head as the rest of the body turns left to right

A) optocollic reflex
B) vestibulo-ocular reflex
C) vestibulocollic reflex
D) quadriceps stretch reflex
E) leg withdrawal reflex
F) crossed extensor reflex
G) optokinetic reflex
H) eye blink reflex.

Question 16

Match each reflex with it's appropriate function:
-_____stabilization of the head backward as the body moves forward

A) optocollic reflex
B) vestibulo-ocular reflex
C) vestibulocollic reflex
D) quadriceps stretch reflex
E) leg withdrawal reflex
F) crossed extensor reflex
G) optokinetic reflex
H) eye blink reflex.

Question 17

Match each reflex with it's appropriate function:
-_____prevention of retinal slip by rapid left to right or up and down movements of the eyes

A) optocollic reflex
B) vestibulo-ocular reflex
C) vestibulocollic reflex
D) quadriceps stretch reflex
E) leg withdrawal reflex
F) crossed extensor reflex
G) optokinetic reflex
H) eye blink reflex.

Question 18

Match each reflex with it's appropriate function:
-_____stabilization of the eyes with turning or tilting of the head

A) optocollic reflex
B) vestibulo-ocular reflex
C) vestibulocollic reflex
D) quadriceps stretch reflex
E) leg withdrawal reflex
F) crossed extensor reflex
G) optokinetic reflex
H) eye blink reflex.

Question 19

Match each reflex with it's appropriate function:
-_____stabilization of a leg when the other leg is lifted off the ground

A) optocollic reflex
B) vestibulo-ocular reflex
C) vestibulocollic reflex
D) quadriceps stretch reflex
E) leg withdrawal reflex
F) crossed extensor reflex
G) optokinetic reflex
H) eye blink reflex.

Question 20

Match each reflex with it's appropriate function:
-_____rapid bending at the knee when your foot experiences a sharp stimulus

A) optocollic reflex
B) vestibulo-ocular reflex
C) vestibulocollic reflex
D) quadriceps stretch reflex
E) leg withdrawal reflex
F) crossed extensor reflex
G) optokinetic reflex
H) eye blink reflex.

Question 21

Match each reflex with it's appropriate function:
-_____activation of the quadriceps muscles when your knee bends when walking

A) optocollic reflex
B) vestibulo-ocular reflex
C) vestibulocollic reflex
D) quadriceps stretch reflex
E) leg withdrawal reflex
F) crossed extensor reflex
G) optokinetic reflex
H) eye blink reflex.

Question 22

Match each reflex with it's appropriate function:
-_____prevents irritants from entering the eye and spreads tears

A) optocollic reflex
B) vestibulo-ocular reflex
C) vestibulocollic reflex
D) quadriceps stretch reflex
E) leg withdrawal reflex
F) crossed extensor reflex
G) optokinetic reflex
H) eye blink reflex.

Question 23

Refer to Figure 10.11, In the text if the wire was attached to the right hand and the cup held in the left hand during this postural reflex experiment, what would you expect to be true?

A) activity in the right tricep would decrease to stabilize the posture
B) activity in the right tricep would increase to stabilize the posture
C) activity in the left tricep would decrease to stabilize the posture
D) activity in the left tricep would increase to stabilize the posture

Question 24

How would a person's reflexes be altered if they suffered a loss of function their vestibular apparatus?

Question 25

Describe the stabilizing reflexes of the head and body that you employ when turning your car around a tight corner.

Question 26

The rhythmic patterns of neural activity that are created by the molecular activity of single cells or interactions of multiple neurons are called _______________.

Question 27

In order for a CPG to utilize a half-center oscillator it must contain a minimum of __________ set(s) of inhibitory neurons that response to (a) ________ excitatory input(s).

A) two, single
B) two, double
C) one, single
D) one, double

Question 28

The rhythmic depolarization and hyperpolarization of a lamprey's spinal column persists even in the presence of TTX. How does this support the central pattern generator hypothesis?

A) action potentials between neurons are eliminated
B) hyperpolarization is inhibited
C) depolarization is inhibited
D) NMDA receptors are irreversibly inhibited
E) all of the above

Question 29

Which of the following is true about a half-center oscillator?

A) rhythmic output is generated by reciprocal inhibition
B) rhythmic output is generated by alternating excitatory and inhibitory inputs
C) rhythmic output is generated by fatiguing of sequential inputs
D) rhythmic output is generated by reciprocal excitation
E) none of the above

Question 30

The image above showing neural activity in four electrodes placed opposite each other, 1 across from 3 and 2 across from 4, in sequence in a spinal cord. Which of the following can be derived from this data?

A) activity in electrode 1 seems to inhibit activity in electrode 3 and visa versa, indicative of the rhythmic activity of lateral undulation
B) activity in electrode 1 seems to inhibit activity in electrode 2 and visa versa, indicative of the rhythmic activity of lateral undulation
C) activity in electrode 2 seems to inhibit activity in electrode 3 and visa versa, indicative of the rhythmic activity of active swimming
D) All of these neural activity recorded is inhibitory
E) There is no pattern of activity that can be derived from reviewing this data

Question 31

When experimenters induced fictive swimming in dogfish, they observed that the rhythm of the fictive swimming could be synchronized to the rhythm of mechanical movements of the tail. What is this an example of?

A) cerebral CPGs
B) half-center oscillation
C) entrainment
D) VOR reflex
E) none of the above

Question 32

Compare and contrast the CPG for swimming in lampreys to the CPG for walking in quadrupeds?

Question 33

Which of the following are necessary before an experiment using live, vertebrate animals can be conducted in a lab that receives money from the NIH?

A) the laboratory has to be inspected by the IACCUC
B) all procedures must be approved by the IACCUC
C) all animals must receive veterinary care
D) procedures must be chosen that reduce an animals comfort, distress, and pain as much as possible
E) all of the above

Question 34

What animal is utilized in the greatest numbers in laboratory research?

A) mice
B) birds
C) monkeys
D) rats
E) fish

Question 35

How might you determine if walking involves a central pattern generator or a chain of sensorimotor reflexes in an IACCUC-approved species not already discussed in the chapter?

Question 36

All of the following are part of the motor cortex in primates, except

A) primary motor cortex (M1)
B) premotor cortex
C) supplementary motor area (SMA)
D) corpus callosum

Question 37

Which of the following is a true statement about the projections of the motor cortex?

A) all projections of the motor cortex synapse on motor neurons controlling voluntary movement
B) projections of the motor cortex directly to the spinal cord control vegetative processes
C) projections of the motor cortex are necessary for the ability to talk
D) projections of the motor cortex all synapse on interneurons
E) all of the above

Question 38

Which of the following might be symptoms of a lesion to the right motor cortex?

A) loss of movement of the left leg
B) loss of movement of the right leg
C) loss of movement of the head and trunk
D) complete loss of bladder control
E) all of the above

Question 39

When Hughlings Jackson observed an epileptic seizure that started with curling of the toes and contortion of the ankles while recording neural activity on the motor cortex, he likely observed motor cortex activity in motor cortex areas that were ____________to each other.

Question 40

According to Penfield's motor homunculus, which body parts receive the most neural input from the motor cortex.

A) hip and knees
B) head and face
C) trunk and shoulders
D) ankle and toes
E) all body parts have the same amount of neural input for the motor cortex

Question 41

Experiments with monkeys tracking hand movements with electrical stimulation to different sites in the motor cortex revealed what information about the motor cortex map?

A) the effect of cortical stimulation may vary with the prior location of the limb in space
B) microstimulation of specific sites on the motor cortex activates a single muscles
C) adjacent stimulation sites on the motor cortex always stimulate adjacent muscles
D) prolonged stimulation of specific sites on the motor cortex causes muscle fatigue
E) none of the above

Question 42

What does the neuronal population code imply about the motor cortex?

A) every neuron in the motor cortex is mapped exclusively to a specific population of other neurons
B) only specific populations of neurons in the motor cortex are responsive to electrical stimulus
C) movements are encoded on the motor cortex not by single neurons but populations of neurons firing together
D) only in certain populations of monkeys has motor cortex mapping been successful

Question 43

The motor cortex and spinal cord both contribute to the control of voluntary movements. Give an example from the text that provides evidence for the idea that control of walking is highly coordinated by the spinal cord.

Question 44

A small subset of neurons in the ventral premotor region of the motor cortex are activated for a particular movement even when the action is only observed. These are called______________________.

Question 45

Which of the following support the idea that the motor cortex expresses a high level of neural plasticity?

A) learning new movements can activate previously dormant neurons in the motor cortex
B) learned movements activate or rewire patterns in the motor cortex
C) constraint-induced movement therapy is efficacious for restoring movement in a damaged limb
D) cortical maps for certain movements have been shown experimentally to change over time
E) all of the above

Question 46

Which of the following tests could distinguish between a patient experiencing locked-in syndrome from a patient in a permanently vegetative state?

A) small movements of the face or eyes in response to questions
B) imaging brain activity when a patient is prompted to think of certain activities
C) looking for spinal reflex activity by stimulating the toes or fingers
D) a and b

Question 47

Does the discovery of mirror neurons support or contradict the current hypotheses on how the motor cortex is mapped to coordinate specific movements?

Question 48

The largest cell bodies in the cerebellum are the ______________cells although the most numerous are the ______________.

A) cerebellar granule, Purkinje
B) Purkinje, cerebellar granule
C) Purkinje, inferior olive
D) inferior olive, climbing fiber

Question 49

The only neurotransmitter used for signaling by the Purkinje neurons is ________.

Question 50

After amputation of a limb, what might you might expect that in the area of the motor cortex that originally sent information to that missing limb

A) nothing changes as the motor cortex in this area and adjacent areas is still devoted to sending signals to that limb
B) the motor cortex in this area and adjacent areas becomes devoted to sending signals to the intact limbs
C) less motor cortex becomes devoted to sending signals to both the intact and amputated limb than before the injury
D) more than one of the above is possible
Answer :

Question 51

Which of the following would result in the largest degree of Purkinje cell inactivation?

A) death of thousands of surrounding granule cells
B) death of thousands of surrounding inferior olive cells
C) increasing the area of the dendrites of the Purkinje cell
D) activation of thousands of surrounding granule cells
E) none of the above would affect Purkinje cell activation

Question 52

Match each division of the cerebellum with it's appropriate function:
-_____coordinates movements of the neck and trunk

A) vestibullocerebellum
B) spinocerebellum
C) cerebrocerebellum

Question 53

Match each division of the cerebellum with it's appropriate function:
-_____modifies reflexes involving the vestibular input

A) vestibullocerebellum
B) spinocerebellum
C) cerebrocerebellum

Question 54

Match each division of the cerebellum with it's appropriate function:
-_____sends and receives synaptic input from the frontal lobe

A) vestibullocerebellum
B) spinocerebellum
C) cerebrocerebellum

Question 55

Purkinje cell activation results in ____________of their target cells in the interior of the cerebellum.

Question 56

Learning to turn the wheel of a car sliding on ice in the opposite direction that the car is sliding in a slow, controlled fashion is an example of what sort of learned behavior.

A) adaptive feedforward control
B) adaptive feedback control
C) learned avoidance
D) reward-seeking
E) a and b

Question 57

Feedback and feedforward control are general features of the nervous system. In particular, the coordination of movement requires both feedback and feedforward neural control of motor systems. Define feedback and feedforward control in your own words and give an example of each type of control in a specific type of movement.

Question 58

All of the following are indications of cerebellar damage and clinical features of cerebellar ataxia, except

A) loss of target recognition
B) overshooting targets when reaching for them
C) trembling when reaching for a target
D) all of the above

Question 59

In Figure 10.26 In the text cerebellar modulation of the VOR is demonstrated by having monkeys respond with head movements to visual stimulus in the presence or absence of magnifying lenses. Using lidocaine, they found that the VOR gain in the presence of magnifying glasses depended on action potentials in the vestibullocerebellum. What additional experiment would be best to provide even more detailed evidence of how the cerebellum modifies the VOR?

A) having the monkeys look through magnifying lenses of different colors
B) using a sound stimulus while conducting the experiment
C) infusing the vestibullocerebellum with a GABA receptor inhibitor
D) repeating the experiment in decerebrated cats
E) none of the above

Question 60

Self-generated sensory inputs are filtered out by the cerebellum, which enhances sensitivity to unexpected signals. What adaptive behavior is this most advantageous for?

A) prey and predator recognition in some species capable of electroreception
B) an inability to tickle yourself
C) enhancing the sympathetic fight or flight response
D) reducing pain reception
E) all of the above

Question 61

Which of the of the following is a true statement regarding the functions of the cerebellum?

A) the cerebellum's primary role is for fine-tuning movements and balance very little influence on cognition
B) all projections of the cerebellum synapse within the cerebellum
C) the cerebellum has neuronal connections with the VOR, motor cortex, and prefrontal cortex and therefore refines movement and balance as well as influences cognition
D) the cerebellum is a completely autonomous structure within the brain

Question 62

The results of experiments demonstrating the conditioned eye blink response provide support for which of the following statements below?

A) deep cerebellar nuclei are capable of long term motor memories
B) the cerebellar cortex is solely responsible for conditioned motor responses
C) the premotor cortex is solely responsible for conditioned motor responses
D) cerebellar nuclei are only capable of activity that refines movements
E) all of the above

Question 63

Ablation of interpositus nucleus (IPN) connections to the red nucleus would result in a(n)__________in the condition eye blink reflex.

Question 64

A 24-year old woman in China in one of nine known cases of someone being born without a cerebellum. She went to the hospital for nausea and vertigo when it was discovered and reported significant delays in speaking and walking during development. Discuss how all of these symptoms are explained by her lack of a cerebellum and what other deficits or symptoms you might suspect she had?

Question 65

Which of the following changes in movement after severe damage to descending neurons of the spinal cord in the upper thoracic vertebrae would you expect?

A) during a period of spinal shock processes such as respiration, digestion, urination, and defecation are severely impaired or lost completely
B) upper and lower limbs go limp or are very weak and any returning movement is erradic and unpredictable
C) heightened sensitivity to non-voluntary movement to the limbs and skin sensitivity due to a loss of spinal reflex integration with the motor cortex and cerebellum
D) complete paralysis of the lower body with no movement, voluntary or involuntary
E) a-c

Question 66

Early stages of motor learning primarily rely on the _______________and ____________. However, once these movements become more automatic, the _____________is most active.

Question 67

Place the following events in the movement of bending over to pick up a heavy box in the correct order by numbering from 1-4: (some numbers will be used for multiple events, as they happen simultaneously)
_____ Before you start to bend you knees and extend your arms down, your motor cortex instructs your calf and ankle muscles start to anticipate the shifting of your weight down and forward
_____ You make a conscious decision to pick up the box, activating the prefrontal cortex
_____ Your cerebellum sends feedforward signals from previous learned behaviors of picking up a heavy box and catalogues new error signals from this experience
_____ You complete the movement with conscious awareness of how to modify the next movement (moving your hands, engaging your legs, etc.) to lift the box based on sensory and motor information coordinated by the prefrontal, motor, and frontal cortex along with the cerebellum
_____ As you execute the movement your spinal reflexes, under the control of the motor cortex, stiffens the calves, ankles, neck, and back to stabilize you as you bend over

Question 68

Match each scientist with their appropriate contribution to understanding of the control of posture and locomotion
-_____ using observations of how epileptic seizers "march" across the body, hypothesized that neurons located adjacent to each other in the motor cortex control corresponding adjacent body parts

A) Charles Sherrington
B) Donald Wilson
C) Sten Grillner
D) Graham Brown
E) Hughlings Jackson
F) Wilder Penfield
G) Giocomo Rizzolatti.

Question 69

Match each scientist with their appropriate contribution to understanding of the control of posture and locomotion
-_____ made important early discoveries of the leg withdrawal reflex

A) Charles Sherrington
B) Donald Wilson
C) Sten Grillner
D) Graham Brown
E) Hughlings Jackson
F) Wilder Penfield
G) Giocomo Rizzolatti.

Question 70

Match each scientist with their appropriate contribution to understanding of the control of posture and locomotion
-_____ demonstrated that walking in a mammalian quadruped involves spinal CGP using spinal and decerebrate cats

A) Charles Sherrington
B) Donald Wilson
C) Sten Grillner
D) Graham Brown
E) Hughlings Jackson
F) Wilder Penfield
G) Giocomo Rizzolatti.

Question 71

Match each scientist with their appropriate contribution to understanding of the control of posture and locomotion
-_____ supported the central pattern generator hypothesis with early discoveries of locust locomotion

A) Charles Sherrington
B) Donald Wilson
C) Sten Grillner
D) Graham Brown
E) Hughlings Jackson
F) Wilder Penfield
G) Giocomo Rizzolatti.

Question 72

Match each scientist with their appropriate contribution to understanding of the control of posture and locomotion
-_____ constructed a motor homunculus illustrating the relative size of portions of the motor cortex devoted to certain body parts

A) Charles Sherrington
B) Donald Wilson
C) Sten Grillner
D) Graham Brown
E) Hughlings Jackson
F) Wilder Penfield
G) Giocomo Rizzolatti.

Question 73

Match each scientist with their appropriate contribution to understanding of the control of posture and locomotion
-_____ conducted seminal experiments in lampreys to demonstrate that the core of the CPG for lampreys is a half-center oscillator

A) Charles Sherrington
B) Donald Wilson
C) Sten Grillner
D) Graham Brown
E) Hughlings Jackson
F) Wilder Penfield
G) Giocomo Rizzolatti.

Question 74

Match each scientist with their appropriate contribution to understanding of the control of posture and locomotion
-_____ using hand-gripping experiments with macaque monkeys, demonstrated the presence of mirror neurons in the motor and premotor cortex

A) Charles Sherrington
B) Donald Wilson
C) Sten Grillner
D) Graham Brown
E) Hughlings Jackson
F) Wilder Penfield
G) Giocomo Rizzolatti.

Question 75

Motor control and movement is dependent upon activity of which of the following structures and reflexes?

A) deep cerebellar nuclei
B) premotor cortex
C) spinal reflexes
D) vestibular reflexes
E) all of the above