Deck 4: Observation

Question 1

Identify the four measurement scales and provide an example of each measurement scale.

Answer 1

The four measurement scales are:nominal,ordinal,interval,and ratio scales.A nominal scale involves the use of categories,such as male or female.An ordinal scale involves ranking the stimuli to be measured,such as class rank.An interval scale involves specifying how far apart two stimuli are on a given dimension when differences of the same numerical size are equal .A ratio scale has all the properties of an interval scale with the important additional property of a true zero point.Physical scales such as time,distance,and weight can usually be treated as ratio scales.

Question 2

Read this description of a study and answer the questions that follow.
A newspaper reporter at a university newspaper sought to gather evidence about the quality of teaching at the university. For one week at the beginning of the semester she attended 5 different classes each day, each with a different instructor. She asked 4 other reporters to do this too (they all attended different classes), and she trained them regarding the ratings they would make. The reporters pretended to be students, but sat in the back of class so the instructor wouldn't notice their observations. Using 10-point rating scales, they rated each instructor on five dimensions: interesting, organized, informative, friendly, and respectful. They summarized their findings and reported that, in general, the quality of teaching at the university is very good.
Based on this reporter's procedures,are you confident that the quality of teaching at the university is "very good." Why or why not?

Answer 2

The reporter did not provide criteria (e.g. ,operational definitions)for determining what constitutes "very good" teaching.It's possible that the observers used different criteria when making their ratings on the 1-10 rating scale.Without more information about the criteria for judging the quality of the teaching,it is difficult to be confident about the conclusions.Thus,even if the reporters are reliable in their observations,the observations may not be valid.

Question 3

Figure:
Two observers observe a child in the classroom every 30 minutes to record whether he is behaving aggressively.They use two categories for their observations: yes (aggressive)or no (not aggressive).Using the data presented below,answer the following questions.
Do you think the observers demonstrated acceptable interobserver reliability? Why or why not?

Answer 3

The observers agreed for only half of their observations;this is not acceptable interobserver reliability.For the reliability to be acceptable,they should have agreed at least 85% of the time;in this example,they should have agreed for 9 of the 10 observations.

Question 4

Define and explain the reason for using time sampling and situation sampling in naturalistic observation.

Question 5

Time sampling and situation sampling are used to increase which of the following characteristics of observational findings?

A)efficiency
B)internal validity
C)interobserver reliability
D)external validity

Question 6

Read this description of a study and answer the questions that follow.
A newspaper reporter at a university newspaper sought to gather evidence about the quality of teaching at the university. For one week at the beginning of the semester she attended 5 different classes each day, each with a different instructor. She asked 4 other reporters to do this too (they all attended different classes), and she trained them regarding the ratings they would make. The reporters pretended to be students, but sat in the back of class so the instructor wouldn't notice their observations. Using 10-point rating scales, they rated each instructor on five dimensions: interesting, organized, informative, friendly, and respectful. They summarized their findings and reported that, in general, the quality of teaching at the university is very good.
Identify one aspect of the procedures that would likely decrease any reactivity associated with the observations.

Question 7

Time sampling is not an effective method for sampling behavior that occurs infrequently.To observe behaviors in situations that occur infrequently,researchers choose

A)event sampling.
B)defined sampling.
C)random sampling.
D)field sampling.

Question 8

Describe the two main methods for indirect (unobtrusive)observation and the important advantage these methods have over direct observation.

Question 9

Read this description of a study and answer the questions that follow.
A newspaper reporter at a university newspaper sought to gather evidence about the quality of teaching at the university. For one week at the beginning of the semester she attended 5 different classes each day, each with a different instructor. She asked 4 other reporters to do this too (they all attended different classes), and she trained them regarding the ratings they would make. The reporters pretended to be students, but sat in the back of class so the instructor wouldn't notice their observations. Using 10-point rating scales, they rated each instructor on five dimensions: interesting, organized, informative, friendly, and respectful. They summarized their findings and reported that, in general, the quality of teaching at the university is very good.
Identify one aspect of the procedures in this study that the reporter used to improve the reliability of the observations.

Question 10

In using time sampling to gain a representative sample of behavior,the intervals in which the observations are to be made should be selected

A)economically.
B)only randomly.
C)only systematically.
D)either randomly or systematically,or both.

Question 11

Identify one factor that decreases interobserver reliability and one factor that increases interobserver reliability.

Question 12

Describe three problems and limitations that can occur when archival records are used in research,and how these problems affect researchers' conclusions about evidence from archival records?

Question 13

Define observer bias and describe the best way to reduce this problem in a research study.

Question 14

Researchers use time sampling to obtain

A)as many observation intervals as possible.
B)an internally valid set of observations.
C)a representative sample of behavior.
D)the highest possible interobserver reliability.

Question 15

Read this description of a study and answer the questions that follow.
A newspaper reporter at a university newspaper sought to gather evidence about the quality of teaching at the university. For one week at the beginning of the semester she attended 5 different classes each day, each with a different instructor. She asked 4 other reporters to do this too (they all attended different classes), and she trained them regarding the ratings they would make. The reporters pretended to be students, but sat in the back of class so the instructor wouldn't notice their observations. Using 10-point rating scales, they rated each instructor on five dimensions: interesting, organized, informative, friendly, and respectful. They summarized their findings and reported that, in general, the quality of teaching at the university is very good.
Identify the type of observational method used in this study.

Question 16

Describe the primary goals of naturalistic observation,participant observation,structured observation,and field experiments.

Question 17

Which one of the following statements does not characterize scientific observation?

A)The observations are made in a systematic manner with careful record keeping.
B)There is a heavy reliance on the researcher's memory in describing an observed event.
C)Observations are made under precisely defined conditions.
D)Every effort is made to observe behavior objectively by avoiding personal and situational biases.

Question 18

Figure:
Two observers observe a child in the classroom every 30 minutes to record whether he is behaving aggressively.They use two categories for their observations: yes (aggressive)or no (not aggressive).Using the data presented below,answer the following questions.
Calculate and report the observers' interobserver reliability.

Question 19

In psychological research,investigators sample individuals' behavior at different times or in different situations.The goal of sampling behavior is to

A)obtain a representative sample of behavior.
B)infer causes of people's behavior.
C)insure the highest possible interobserver reliability.
D)obtain as many observations as possible.

Question 20

Researchers who studied beer drinking among college students made their observations in five town bars,a student center,and a fraternity party.They were better able to generalize their findings because they used

A)condition sampling.
B)participant observation.
C)situation sampling.
D)structured observation.

Question 21

Of the following observational methods,which one does not use intervention by the researcher?

A)participant observation
B)naturalistic observation
C)structured observation
D)field experiment

Question 22

The distinction between natural-use traces and controlled-use traces is similar to the distinction between

A)correlations and spurious relationships.
B)qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis.
C)observations without intervention and observations with intervention.
D)physical traces and archival records.

Question 23

used participant observation to study psychiatric diagnosis in the context of a mental institution by having "pseudopatients" seek admission was to

A)gain access to a situation or event that is generally not open to scientific investigation.
B)investigate the limits of an organism's response by varying systematically the qualities of a stimulus event.
C)precipitate or cause an event that occurs infrequently in nature.
D)establish a comparison by manipulating an independent variable to determine its effect on behavior.

Question 24

Researchers conducted a study on invasion of personal space.A confederate of the researcher sat on a public bench and either stared at a person walking by or read a newspaper while a person walked by the bench.An observer recorded whether the person walking looked away from where the confederate was sitting.What type of observational study does this study represent?

A)naturalistic observation
B)structured observation
C)field experiment
D)reactive observation

Question 25

Clinical psychologists who make behavioral assessments of parent-child interactions are likely making use of an observation technique called

A)low-intervention observation.
B)structured observation.
C)quasi-controlled observation.
D)disguised participant observation.

Question 26

The remnants,fragments of past behavior that provide unobtrusive measures of behavior are called

A)subtle traces.
B)physical traces.
C)archival traces.
D)anecdotal traces.

Question 27

A researcher uses archival records to investigate whether divorce rates in a city change following major catastrophes (e.g. ,hurricane,terrorism).This represents the use of

A)physical traces.
B)qualitative data analysis.
C)selective survival.
D)natural treatments.

Question 28

In order to conduct a structured observation or a field experiment,researchers make use of ________ to create the observation situation.

A)confederates
B)participant observers
C)independent variables
D)narrative records

Question 29

The problem of reactive measurement is _________ when unobtrusive observation is used.

A)eliminated
B)unchanged
C)increased
D)decreased

Question 30

Under which of the following circumstances is a participant observer more likely to have a significant effect on the behavior of the subjects being observed?

A)when the group under observation is large and the activities of the participant observer are prominent
B)when the group under observation is large and the activities of the participant observer are disguised
C)when the group under observation is small and the activities of the participant observer are disguised
D)when the group under observation is small and the activities of the participant observer are prominent

Question 31

The degree to which a young child's dolls show signs of wear might indicate which dolls the child likes the best.This potential physical trace measure would be described as a

A)controlled-use trace.
B)running archival record.
C)physical product.
D)natural-use trace.

Question 32

In a field experiment,the investigator

A)always uses narrative records for recording behavior.
B)never manipulates an independent variable,but observes behavior in a natural setting.
C)always manipulates an independent variable in a natural setting.
D)always uses qualitative data analysis.

Question 33

A researcher seeks to describe behavior at an airport security screening area during a busy holiday travel time.Because there are far too many people for the researcher to observe effectively,she should use

A)naturalistic observation.
B)subject sampling.
C)running records.
D)event sampling.

Question 34

Research studies have examined evidence of past human behavior,including works of art,television shows,and bumper stickers,to test various hypotheses.This source of unobtrusive evidence is called

A)human artifacts.
B)products.
C)cultural evidence.
D)use effects.

Question 35

When individuals are not aware of the presence of an observer,as when data from physical traces or archival records are analyzed,the observation is described as

A)reactive.
B)spurious.
C)unobtrusive.
D)a natural treatment.

Question 36

A researcher interested in "inattentional blindness" has a confederate walk across a stage holding a large sign during the first class of an introductory psychology course.At the end of the class,assistants ask departing students if they know what they sign said.This is an example of

A)a field experiment.
B)structured observation.
C)qualitative research.
D)undisguised participant observation.

Question 37

Two types of archival records are

A)running records and episodic records.
B)natural-use records and controlled-use records.
C)selective-deposit records and selective-survival records.
D)none of these

Question 38

One main disadvantage of structured observation is

A)failure to follow similar procedures each time an observation is made may make it difficult for other observers to obtain similar results.
B)observations that are made using structured observation are made under conditions that are less natural than those imposed in the laboratory.
C)the degree of control in structured observations unduly constrains the flexibility needed by researchers.
D)the compromise between the passive nonintervention of naturalistic observation and the precise control of laboratory methods has not proven to be effective.

Question 39

When a researcher plays an active and significant role in the situation in which behavior is being recorded and when the researcher conceals the fact that observations are being made,the study represents a(n)

A)unobtrusive field experiment.
B)disguised structured observation.
C)disguised participant observation.
D)deceptive naturalistic observation.

Question 40

Which of the following is the most likely reason that a researcher studying aggressiveness of children would choose to use naturalistic observation?

A)Naturalistic observation would allow for the most precise operational definition of aggressiveness and thus the highest degree of internal validity.
B)Naturalistic observation would allow for the greatest control over the setting in which the observations were made.
C)Naturalistic observation is the preferred method when systematic manipulation of independent variables is required.
D)Naturalistic observation is the preferred method when moral and ethical limitations apply to the topic under investigation.

Question 41

When observers are asked to use a rating scale to measure a psychological dimension such as aggressiveness or anxiety,the researchers must decide whether these ratings represent a(n)

A)nominal or an interval scale.
B)nominal or an ordinal scale.
C)interval or a ratio scale.
D)ordinal or an interval scale.

Question 42

Two student researchers wish to determine the degree of observer reliability they achieved in their study.They observed individual students who were approaching another person on a campus path.The two observers both independently recorded whether or not the observed student greeted the other person.Which of the following measures should the student researchers use to assess observer reliability?

A)percentage agreement measure
B)Spearman's rank-order correlation
C)interobserver coding measure
D)overall agreement measure

Question 43

The first step in the analysis of narrative records often consists of identifying units of behavior according to specific criteria.This process is called

A)coding.
B)chunking.
C)filing.
D)classifying.

Question 44

Which of the following dependent variables is most likely to represent a ratio scale of measurement?

A)occurrence of eye contact (present/absent)
B)rank ordering of amount of eye contact
C)duration of eye contact
D)ratings of intimacy of eye contact

Question 45

When events are classified into mutually exclusive categories on a nominal scale (e.g. ,brown-eyed or blue-eyed),the most common descriptive measure is

A)relative duration.
B)relative frequency.
C)data coding.
D)arithmetic averaging.

Question 46

When many observations of the same children in a classroom are made it is possible to determine the frequency of certain behaviors such as how many times children speak in class.Which scale of measurement do these frequency data represent?

A)nominal
B)ordinal
C)interval
D)ratio

Question 47

A researcher measures participants' speed to push a button on the computer when a stimulus is presented on the computer screen.Which of the following measurement scales describes this reaction time measure?

A)nominal scale
B)ordinal scale
C)interval scale
D)ratio scale

Question 48

Which of the following statements about interobserver reliability is true?

A)High interobserver reliability of observations assures observations are valid (accurate).
B)Interobserver reliability is best when observers are allowed to make their own subjective judgments when making observations.
C)Interobserver reliability is generally increased by clearly defining the events that are to be observed.
D)all of these

Question 49

A school superintendent has received a report from the state that lists the ranking of schools in terms of the students' performance on the state's achievement test.Which scale of measurement is represented in this report?

A)nominal scale
B)ordinal scale
C)interval scale
D)ratio scale

Question 50

For both physical and psychological measurement the lowest scale of measurement involves categorizing the stimulus into one of a number of discrete categories (e.g. ,male or female).This level of measurement is called a(n)

A)ordinal scale.
B)ratio scale.
C)nominal scale.
D)interval scale.

Question 51

A researcher studying interpersonal communication measured the time that couples made eye contact during a conversation.Which descriptive statistics will most commonly be used describe the researcher's duration measurements?

A)mode and range
B)median and quartile dispersion
C)mean and standard deviation
D)proportion and percentage

Question 52

Low interobserver reliability is likely to result because of

A)extensive training of observers.
B)lack of clear definitions of events to be recorded.
C)specific feedback to observers regarding discrepancies between their observations.
D)all of these

Question 53

When a more or less faithful reproduction of behavior as it originally occurred is recorded in either written form or through the use of audio or video recording,the resulting description of behavior in an observation study is called a

A)coded copy.
B)data transcript.
C)complete file.
D)narrative recorD.

Question 54

A researcher tries to show that the frequency of traffic accidents increases in warmer weather.This researcher need to consider whether there are more cars on the road when it is warmer.This "number of cars" variable must be considered to make sure the relationship between traffic accidents and temperature is not a

A)natural-treatment relationship.
B)causal relationship.
C)spurious relationship.
D)contaminated relationship.

Question 55

Researchers conducted a content analysis in which they examined race relations on TV.They included programs with a story line and all commercials,but they excluded documentaries,news broadcasts,and sports shows.Which characteristic of the researchers' sample is likely to be most affected by these decisions?

A)representativeness
B)homogeneity
C)stability
D)internal validity

Question 56

Organizing results and preparing statements summarizing important findings in the analysis of behavioral data is called

A)data abstraction.
B)data reduction.
C)coding.
D)summative analysis.

Question 57

Frequency of occurrence can represent either of two measurement scales depending upon whether only a single observation of each person is made or several observations of the same individual are made.Frequency of occurrence can represent either

A)nominal or ordinal scales.
B)nominal or ratio scales.
C)ordinal or interval scales.
D)interval or ratio scales.

Question 58

Although there is no hard-and-fast percentage of agreement that defines low interobserver reliability,the literature of observation studies reveals that researchers generally report interobserver reliabilities that are at least as high as

A)25 percent.
B)50 percent.
C)60 percent.
D)85 percent.

Question 59

Which of the following would be an example of coding a narrative record during the process of data reduction in qualitative data analysis?

A)calculating interobserver reliability
B)obtaining a mean number of behaviors after classifying the behaviors into categories
C)displaying the data using a graph or a chart
D)classifying behaviors from an observation record into different categories

Question 60

Newspaper advice columnists print only a fraction of the letters they receive.Analysis of the printed letters is likely limited by the problem of

A)selective deposit.
B)selective survival.
C)spurious relationship.
D)situation sampling.

Question 61

In order to avoid the problem of ______,it is sometimes necessary to use ______.

A)reactivity;unobtrusive observation
B)observer bias;"blind" subjects
C)demand characteristics;"blind" observers
D)all of these

Question 62

Students conducted a naturalistic observation to study whether people arriving at the library alone would be more likely to hold the door open for a person coming in immediately after them than would people who arrived in pairs.The students made their observations looking through the window of a classroom building across from the library.They chose this observation sight to avoid the potential problem of

A)demand characteristics.
B)observer bias.
C)reactivity.
D)unrepresentative sampling.

Question 63

The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient (r)can be used to measure interobserver reliability when

A)the behavioral data have been measured on at least an interval scale.
B)the behavioral data have been measured on a nominal or ordinal scale.
C)the events to be classified have clear operational definitions.
D)agreement between observers is expected to be low.

Question 64

Ethologists such as Diane Fossey (who studied mountain gorillas)use a technique to adapt animal subjects to the presence of an observer by gradually increasing the time they spend in the animals' environment.This technique is called

A)implosion.
B)counterconditioning.
C)desensitization.
D)regressive approach.

Question 65

The cues and other information used by participants to guide their behavior in a psychological study are called

A)sensitization bias.
B)intra-experimental cues.
C)experimenter expectancies.
D)demand characteristics.

Question 66

When individuals are aware they are being observed we need to be concerned about problems of

A)expectancy effects.
B)reactivity.
C)observer bias.
D)interobserver reliability.

Question 67

In order to minimize observer bias,researchers should

A)limit the amount of information observers have about the hypothesis.
B)fully explain the research hypothesis to observers so there is no confusion.
C)ask observers to code which of their observations are biased and which are not.
D)make sure that observers read all of the previously published research on the behavior they're observing.

Question 68

Which of the following correlations represents the greatest predictive relationship between two variables?

A).40
B).00
C)-.40
D)-.80

Question 69

Students conducted a research project in which they hypothesized that women,more than men,would stop studying and look at each person who enters a library study room.Results indicated that women did make more head movements than men when people entered the library.To be confident about these results,we would want to make sure their results are not affect by

A)expectancy effects.
B)adaptation.
C)demand characteristics.
D)unobtrusive measures.

Question 70

Researchers were doing a long-term study of children's relationships with their parent in the homes of the families.Before beginning to collect data,the observers visited each home a few times and set up their recording equipment and recorded behavior just as they would do in the data collection phase of their study.These early visits to the home were done to reduce reactivity.Which of the following techniques did these researchers use?

A)disguised observation
B)habituation
C)accommodation
D)interobserver reliability

Question 71

Probably the most important control over observer bias is

A)the use of a detailed checklist.
B)informing observers about the purpose of the study.
C)the awareness that observer bias might be present.
D)restricting observations to the public domain.

Question 72

Some researchers argue that hypnosis is a special state of consciousness;other researchers disagree.They argue that when the hypnosis procedure is used,individuals simply respond to the cues and instructions of the hypnotist in order to know how to respond.These cues are called

A)demand characteristics.
B)dependent variables.
C)reactivity effects.
D)independent variables.

Question 73

To avoid observer bias researchers may not tell the observers why observations are being made or the goals of the study.In this situation the observers are said to be

A)naïve.
B)habituated.
C)desensitized.
D)blinD.

Question 74

The two pieces of information obtained from a correlation coefficient are

A)the extent of external validity and internal validity of a study.
B)the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables.
C)interobserver reliability and percent agreement between two observers.
D)the predictive relationship and the causal inference between two variables.