Exam 10: What Is Social Justice Creating a Just State

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Peter Singer is a contemporary philosopher who is well-known for his work in applied ethics, particularly in the area of animal rights and global poverty. He applies the principles of utilitarianism, which is a normative ethical theory that suggests that the best action is the one that maximizes utility, usually defined as that which produces the greatest well-being of the greatest number of people.

Singer's approach to utilitarianism is largely influenced by the classical utilitarian philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, but with his own distinctive emphasis on the consideration of non-human animals and the imperative of taking action to alleviate suffering globally.

Here are some key ways in which Peter Singer applies utilitarianism:

1. **Animal Liberation**: In his seminal work "Animal Liberation," Singer argues that the principle of equal consideration of interests should be extended to non-human animals. He posits that the capacity to suffer or experience pleasure should be the basis for moral consideration, not the species of the being. This leads him to argue against practices that cause suffering to animals, such as factory farming and animal experimentation, because they do not maximize overall utility.

2. **Effective Altruism**: Singer is a proponent of effective altruism, a movement that applies evidence and reason to determine the most effective ways to benefit others. He argues that we have a moral obligation to use our resources to help those who are suffering the most, typically those in extreme poverty. Utilitarianism informs this view because it seeks to maximize the positive impact of our actions, and Singer suggests that we can do the most good by strategically directing our charitable efforts.

3. **The Expanding Circle**: Singer's concept of the "expanding circle" is a metaphor for the growing inclusion of different beings within the scope of moral concern. He argues that just as moral concern has historically expanded to include all humans regardless of race or sex, it should further expand to include animals. This is a utilitarian idea because it promotes actions that consider the well-being of a larger number of sentient beings.

4. **Practical Ethics**: In his work on practical ethics, Singer applies utilitarian principles to a range of contemporary ethical issues, from euthanasia and abortion to wealth inequality and environmental concerns. He consistently seeks to determine which actions will lead to the best outcomes for all affected parties, often challenging conventional moral intuitions and societal norms.

Singer's application of utilitarianism is characterized by a rigorous and often controversial examination of the consequences of our actions. He encourages individuals to make choices that are not just good for themselves or their immediate circle, but for the broader community of sentient beings. His work has had a significant influence on both academic philosophy and public discourse on ethics.