Exam 18: The West on the Eve of a New World Order

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Nicholas Copernicus, also known as Nicolaus Copernicus, was a Renaissance-era polymath who formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun rather than the Earth at its center. Born on February 19, 1473, in Toruń, Poland, Copernicus was not only an astronomer but also a mathematician, cleric, jurist, governor, military leader, diplomat, economist, and physician.

Copernicus is best known for his astronomical work, particularly the heliocentric theory presented in his groundbreaking book "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium" (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), published just before his death in 1543. This work challenged the geocentric model of the universe, which had been widely accepted since the time of the ancient Greek philosopher Ptolemy, and where Earth was considered the center of the universe.

The Copernican model proposed that the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, and it laid the foundation for modern astronomy. Although initially controversial and met with resistance, especially from the Roman Catholic Church, Copernicus's heliocentric theory eventually gained widespread acceptance and profoundly influenced the scientific revolution. It paved the way for future astronomers, such as Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei, who built upon and provided further evidence for the heliocentric model.

Nicholas Copernicus passed away on May 24, 1543, in Frombork (Frauenburg), Poland. His work has left a lasting legacy in the fields of astronomy and science as a whole, marking a significant shift in our understanding of the cosmos and our place within it.

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Descartes refers to René Descartes (1596–1650), a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist who is considered one of the founders of modern philosophy. His work laid the foundation for 17th-century continental rationalism, later advocated by Spinoza and Leibniz, and opposed by the empiricist school of thought as represented by Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume.

Descartes is perhaps best known for his philosophical statement "Cogito, ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am"), which became a fundamental element of Western philosophy. He used this statement as a first step in demonstrating the attainability of certain knowledge and is often considered the first step in the development of the modern scientific method.

Cartesian Dualism is a philosophical concept that stems from Descartes' meditations on philosophy and metaphysics. It refers to his theory that reality can be divided into two distinct substances: mind (res cogitans) and matter (res extensa). According to Cartesian Dualism, the mind is a non-physical substance that is characterized by thought and consciousness, while matter is a physical substance that occupies space and is characterized by mechanical properties.

This dualistic approach suggests that the mind and body are fundamentally different in nature: the mind is an immaterial, thinking entity, while the body is a material entity that does not think. This leads to the famous "mind-body problem," which concerns the relationship between the conscious experiences of the mind and the physical states and processes of the body.

Descartes' dualism has been influential in both philosophy and science, but it has also faced criticism and alternative theories, such as monism (which posits that there is only one kind of substance) and physicalism (which holds that everything is physical and that mental states are physical states). Despite these criticisms, Cartesian Dualism remains a significant topic in the philosophy of mind, metaphysics, and psychology.

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Louis XVI was the last king of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution. He was born on August 23, 1754, and became king in 1774 after the death of his grandfather, Louis XV. His reign was marked by economic difficulties, social unrest, and a crisis of the monarchy that eventually led to its downfall.

Louis XVI was married to Marie Antoinette, an Austrian archduchess, and their marriage was initially seen as a symbol of the alliance between France and Austria. However, the queen became unpopular due to her extravagant lifestyle and perceived indifference to the plight of the French people.

During his reign, Louis XVI attempted to reform the French government and economy, but faced opposition from the nobility and other privileged classes. His indecisiveness and perceived lack of leadership contributed to the growing discontent among the populace.

The king's financial support of the American Revolution further strained the already precarious financial situation of France. The country's debt increased, and Louis XVI was forced to call the Estates-General in 1789 for the first time in over a century to address the financial crisis. This assembly, however, quickly turned into a revolutionary body leading to the formation of the National Assembly and the beginning of the French Revolution.

Louis XVI's attempts to control the revolution ultimately failed, and he was arrested in 1792. He was tried for treason by the National Convention, found guilty, and executed by guillotine on January 21, 1793. His death marked the end of more than a thousand years of continuous French monarchy and the beginning of the French Republic.