Exam 2: Roots: Making Race and Ethnicity

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Feagin's concept of the "bureaucratization of oppression" refers to the way in which systems of oppression, such as racism and sexism, become institutionalized and embedded within bureaucratic structures. This means that discriminatory practices and policies are not just individual acts of prejudice, but are instead built into the very fabric of organizations and institutions.

Historically, the bureaucratization of oppression can be seen in the way that discriminatory laws and policies were implemented and enforced by government agencies and other formal institutions. For example, during the era of Jim Crow laws in the United States, segregation and discrimination against African Americans were not just the result of individual prejudices, but were also enforced through a complex system of laws and regulations that were upheld by government agencies, businesses, and other organizations.

An example of the bureaucratization of oppression can also be seen in the way that discriminatory practices are perpetuated within corporate environments. For instance, companies may have policies and procedures that systematically disadvantage certain groups of people, such as women or people of color, in hiring, promotion, and pay practices. These discriminatory practices become ingrained within the bureaucratic structure of the organization, making it difficult to challenge and change them.

Overall, the concept of the bureaucratization of oppression highlights the ways in which systems of oppression become institutionalized and perpetuated through formal structures and processes, rather than just through individual acts of prejudice.

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Japanese immigrants to Brazil undertook the process of "nationalization of ethnic identity" in several ways. One way was through the establishment of Japanese-Brazilian cultural organizations and associations, such as language schools, martial arts clubs, and traditional arts and crafts groups. These organizations provided a space for Japanese immigrants and their descendants to celebrate and preserve their cultural heritage while also integrating into Brazilian society.

Another way Japanese immigrants nationalized their ethnic identity was through participation in Brazilian society and politics. Many Japanese-Brazilians became involved in local and national politics, advocating for the rights and recognition of their community within the larger Brazilian society. This involvement helped to shape the perception of Japanese-Brazilians as active and contributing members of Brazilian society.

Additionally, Japanese immigrants and their descendants also contributed to the nationalization of their ethnic identity through intermarriage and cultural exchange. As Japanese-Brazilians married into other ethnic groups and participated in cultural exchange programs, they helped to create a more diverse and integrated society, while also maintaining their own cultural traditions.

Overall, the nationalization of ethnic identity for Japanese immigrants to Brazil involved a combination of cultural preservation, political participation, and integration into Brazilian society, ultimately leading to the creation of a unique and vibrant Japanese-Brazilian identity.

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Fredrickson differentiates between racism and culturalism because he believes that it is important to recognize the distinction between the two concepts in order to fully understand the complexities of prejudice and discrimination. Racism is based on the belief in the inherent superiority of one race over others, leading to discrimination and mistreatment of individuals based on their race. Culturalism, on the other hand, is the belief in the superiority of one culture over others, leading to discrimination and prejudice based on cultural differences.

The distinction between racism and culturalism is important because it highlights the fact that prejudice and discrimination can manifest in different ways and be based on different factors. By recognizing the differences between these two concepts, we can better understand the various forms that prejudice and discrimination can take and work towards addressing them more effectively.

One thing that could be added to Fredrickson's discussion of the differences between racism and culturalism is the recognition that these two concepts are often interconnected. Racism can often be rooted in culturalism, as beliefs about the superiority of one race are often tied to beliefs about the superiority of one culture. By acknowledging this connection, we can better understand the complexities of prejudice and discrimination and work towards addressing them in a more comprehensive way.