Question 1

How was scientific knowledge institutionalized in the seventeenth century?

Accepted Answer

In the seventeenth century, scientific knowledge was institutionalized through the establishment of scientific societies, academies, and universities. These institutions provided a platform for scientists to collaborate, share their findings, and conduct research in a structured and organized manner. The Royal Society of London, founded in 1660, is a notable example of a scientific society that played a key role in institutionalizing scientific knowledge during this period. Universities also played a crucial role in the institutionalization of scientific knowledge by offering formal education and training in scientific disciplines. Additionally, the patronage of monarchs and wealthy individuals helped fund scientific research and establish scientific institutions, further solidifying the institutionalization of scientific knowledge in the seventeenth century. Overall, the establishment of scientific societies, academies, and universities, along with financial support from patrons, played a significant role in institutionalizing scientific knowledge during this period.

Question 2

What were the main assumptions of natural law philosophy?

Accepted Answer

Natural law philosophy is a moral and legal philosophy that posits certain rights and values are inherent in human nature and can be universally understood through human reason. This philosophy has its roots in ancient Greek and Roman thought and was further developed during the Middle Ages and into the modern era by thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas, John Locke, and others. The main assumptions of natural law philosophy include:

1. **Universality**: Natural law is believed to be universal, meaning it applies to all human beings regardless of time or place. It is not contingent upon any particular society's laws or customs.

2. **Objectivity**: Natural law is considered objective. It is not the result of human agreement or belief, but rather exists independently of human recognition. It can be discovered through the use of reason and does not change with public opinion or societal norms.

3. **Inherent Morality**: Natural law is inherently moral. It is based on the idea that there are objective moral principles that are good in themselves and can be discerned through human reason. These principles are thought to be the basis for determining the rightness or wrongness of actions.

4. **Rationality**: Human beings are rational creatures capable of understanding and following natural law. The use of reason is central to the natural law tradition, as it is through reason that individuals discern the natural order and its moral imperatives.

5. **Purposefulness**: Natural law assumes that all things have a purpose or end (telos) and that human beings have a specific nature and purpose. Living in accordance with one's nature and fulfilling one's purpose is seen as the path to the good life.

6. **Common Good**: The philosophy often emphasizes the common good, suggesting that the natural law guides individuals to live in a way that contributes to the well-being of the community as a whole.

7. **Hierarchy of Laws**: Natural law theorists typically posit a hierarchy of laws, with eternal law (God's plan) at the top, followed by natural law, and then human-made laws. Human laws are considered valid only if they align with natural law.

8. **Inalienable Rights**: Many natural law theorists argue that because natural law is inherent to human nature, it grants individuals certain inalienable rights that cannot be justly taken away by any government or authority. These rights are often thought to include the right to life, liberty, and property.

9. **Moral Basis for Legal Systems**: Natural law serves as a moral foundation for legal systems. It is used to critique and validate human-made laws, asserting that laws should be based on moral principles that are consistent with natural law.

10. **Resistance to Injustice**: Natural law philosophy often includes the assumption that individuals have not only the right but also the duty to resist unjust laws. If a human law contradicts natural law, it is considered invalid and does not have to be obeyed.

These assumptions have influenced various fields, including ethics, politics, and law, and continue to be a subject of debate and interpretation in philosophical and legal circles.

Question 3

Discuss the contributions of Bacon and Descartes to modern thought. Did their thinking contain any important weaknesses or gaps?

Accepted Answer

Francis Bacon and René Descartes made significant contributions to modern thought in the fields of philosophy, science, and epistemology.

Bacon is known for his development of the scientific method, which emphasized empirical observation and experimentation as the basis for acquiring knowledge. He believed that through systematic observation and experimentation, humans could uncover the laws of nature and improve their understanding of the world. Bacon's emphasis on empirical evidence and the rejection of traditional authority laid the groundwork for modern scientific inquiry and the advancement of knowledge.

Descartes, on the other hand, is famous for his method of doubt and his concept of "I think, therefore I am." He sought to establish a foundation for knowledge that was beyond doubt, and he argued for the use of reason and rationalism as the basis for acquiring knowledge. Descartes' emphasis on the power of human reason and the importance of skepticism in the pursuit of truth had a profound impact on modern philosophy and science.

However, both Bacon and Descartes had important weaknesses and gaps in their thinking. Bacon's emphasis on empirical observation and experimentation sometimes led to an overly simplistic view of the scientific method, neglecting the role of creativity and intuition in scientific discovery. Descartes' reliance on reason and rationalism led to a neglect of the role of emotions and the limitations of human cognition.

Additionally, both thinkers were products of their time and were influenced by the cultural and intellectual context in which they lived. This led to certain biases and limitations in their thinking, such as Bacon's tendency to prioritize practical utility over theoretical understanding and Descartes' reliance on a dualistic view of mind and body.

In conclusion, while Bacon and Descartes made important contributions to modern thought, their thinking contained important weaknesses and gaps. It is important to critically evaluate their ideas and recognize the limitations of their perspectives in order to continue advancing knowledge and understanding in the modern world.

Question 4

Discuss the major features of John Locke's scientific and political thought. How did his scientific notions influence his political conceptions?

Accepted Answer

John Locke was a prominent figure in bot

Question 5

How did Bacon and Descartes herald the beginning of the new scientific approach to knowledge and the world?

Accepted Answer

Bacon and Descartes heralded the beginni

Question 6

Locke's deepest book, an Essay Concerning the Human Understanding (1690), concluded that

Accepted Answer

A)  true knowledge was derived from experience. 
B)  the mind had an inevitable disposition to think in certain ways. 
C)  the mind was dualistic. 
D)  all of the choices are correct. 
A)  true knowledge was derived from experience. 
B)  the mind had an inevitable disposition to think in certain ways. 
C)  the mind was dualistic. 
D)  all of the choices are correct.

Question 7

Compare and contrast the views of Hobbes and Locke.

Accepted Answer

Hobbes and Locke were both influential p

Question 8

Key to understanding Francis Bacon's thought are his claims that

Accepted Answer

A)  one should use deductive thinking to prove metaphysical theories. 
B)  one should use inductive thinking to acquire knowledge and that knowledge should be useful. 
C) to acquire real knowledge, one must start with certain definitions; moreover, true knowledge must be carefully separated from useful knowledge. 
D)  mathematical knowledge, built upon both inductive and deductive reasoning, was essential to understand nature. 
A)  one should use deductive thinking to prove metaphysical theories. 
B)  one should use inductive thinking to acquire knowledge and that knowledge should be useful. 
C) to acquire real knowledge, one must start with certain definitions; moreover, true knowledge must be carefully separated from useful knowledge. 
D)  mathematical knowledge, built upon both inductive and deductive reasoning, was essential to understand nature.

Question 9

Describe the evolution of astronomical thought from Copernicus to Newton. What was Newton's great achievement of synthesis?

Accepted Answer

The evolution of astronomical thought fr

Question 10

Explain and contrast the method of deductive reasoning widely practiced in the Middle Ages with the inductive approach to the study of knowledge championed by Bacon and others.

Accepted Answer

In the Middle Ages, deductive reasoning

Question 11

What influence did the new interest in science and evidence have upon the study of history? What new branches of historical investigation were created or perfected in the seventeenth century?

Accepted Answer

The new interest in science and evidence

Question 12

Describe the traditional view of the cosmos, based on the thinking of Aristotle and Ptolemy. How did the seventeenth-century scientific revolution change the traditional view?

Accepted Answer

The traditional view of the cosmos, base

Question 13

Why was the establishment of a common system of dating a significant development in the seventeenth century?

Accepted Answer

The establishment of a common system of

Question 14

In what ways did the new methodologies of observation and experimentation expand knowledge of the human body?

Accepted Answer

The new methodologies of observation and

Question 15

Which of the following new scientific disciplines arose as a consequence of the new interest in history

Accepted Answer

A)  paleography 
B)  numismatics. 
C)  chronology. 
D)  all of the choices are correct. 
A)  paleography 
B)  numismatics. 
C)  chronology. 
D)  all of the choices are correct.

Question 16

John Locke emphasized that sound government rested on

Accepted Answer

A)  universal suffrage. 
B)  the right of property. 
C)  democracy. 
D)  divine sanction. 
A)  universal suffrage. 
B)  the right of property. 
C)  democracy. 
D)  divine sanction.

Question 17

At the end of the seventeenth century and the beginning of the next, the main force in putting an end to beliefs in the supernatural powers and evil designs of witches was

Accepted Answer

A)  revulsion at the slaughter of hundreds of innocent people. 
B)  the growing influence of Protestantism. 
C)  higher and more consistent standards for evidence in legal proceedings. 
D)  a decline in the number of witches. 
A)  revulsion at the slaughter of hundreds of innocent people. 
B)  the growing influence of Protestantism. 
C)  higher and more consistent standards for evidence in legal proceedings. 
D)  a decline in the number of witches.

Question 18

What were some practical applications of the new scientific knowledge that contributed to European ascendancy, both militarily and economically?

Accepted Answer

Some practical applications of the new s

Question 19

Besides natural science, a potent seventeenth-century force causing a questioning of old beliefs was

Accepted Answer

A)  the exploration of the world overseas. 
B)  the discovery of several previously unknown works of Plato. 
C)  huge famines combined with disillusionment at the ineffectiveness of monarchical government. 
D)  all of the choices are correct. 
A)  the exploration of the world overseas. 
B)  the discovery of several previously unknown works of Plato. 
C)  huge famines combined with disillusionment at the ineffectiveness of monarchical government. 
D)  all of the choices are correct.

Question 20

Galileo, looking at the sky through his telescope, observed that

Accepted Answer

A)  most heavenly bodies, except for the moon, were luminous and insubstantial. 
B)  heavenly bodies were made of the same kind of material as the earth. 
C)  heavenly bodies were just as traditional Christian belief taught.
D ) it was impossible to deduce the nature of heavenly bodies through observation, and therefore, further astronomical research should focus on constructing mathematical formulas rather than experiments. 
A)  most heavenly bodies, except for the moon, were luminous and insubstantial. 
B)  heavenly bodies were made of the same kind of material as the earth. 
C)  heavenly bodies were just as traditional Christian belief taught.
D ) it was impossible to deduce the nature of heavenly bodies through observation, and therefore, further astronomical research should focus on constructing mathematical formulas rather than experiments.

Exam 6: The Scientific View of the World

How was scientific knowledge institutionalized in the seventeenth century?

What were the main assumptions of natural law philosophy?

Discuss the contributions of Bacon and Descartes to modern thought. Did their thinking contain any important weaknesses or gaps?

Discuss the major features of John Locke's scientific and political thought. How did his scientific notions influence his political conceptions?

How did Bacon and Descartes herald the beginning of the new scientific approach to knowledge and the world?

Locke's deepest book, an Essay Concerning the Human Understanding (1690), concluded that

Compare and contrast the views of Hobbes and Locke.

Key to understanding Francis Bacon's thought are his claims that

Describe the evolution of astronomical thought from Copernicus to Newton. What was Newton's great achievement of synthesis?

Explain and contrast the method of deductive reasoning widely practiced in the Middle Ages with the inductive approach to the study of knowledge championed by Bacon and others.

What influence did the new interest in science and evidence have upon the study of history? What new branches of historical investigation were created or perfected in the seventeenth century?

Describe the traditional view of the cosmos, based on the thinking of Aristotle and Ptolemy. How did the seventeenth-century scientific revolution change the traditional view?

Why was the establishment of a common system of dating a significant development in the seventeenth century?

In what ways did the new methodologies of observation and experimentation expand knowledge of the human body?

Which of the following new scientific disciplines arose as a consequence of the new interest in history

John Locke emphasized that sound government rested on

At the end of the seventeenth century and the beginning of the next, the main force in putting an end to beliefs in the supernatural powers and evil designs of witches was

What were some practical applications of the new scientific knowledge that contributed to European ascendancy, both militarily and economically?

Besides natural science, a potent seventeenth-century force causing a questioning of old beliefs was

Galileo, looking at the sky through his telescope, observed that

The Rise of Europe

The Upheaval in Western Christendom, 1300-1560

Economic Renewal and Wars of Religion, 1560-1648

The Growing Power of Western Europe, 1640-1715

The Transformation of Eastern Europe, 1648-1740

The Struggle for Wealth and Empire

The Age of Enlightenment

The French Revolution

Napoleonic Europe

Industries, Ideas, and the Struggle for Reform, 1815-1848

Revolutions and the Reimposition of Order, 1848-1870

The Global Consolidation of Large Nation-States, 1859-1871

European Civilization, 1871-1914: Economy and Politics

European Civilization, 1871-1914: Society and Culture

Europes World Supremacy, 1871-1914

The First World War

The Russian Revolution and the Soviet Union

Democracy, Anti-Imperialism, and the Economic Crisis After the First World War

Democracy and Dictatorship in the 1930s

The Second World War

The Cold War and Reconstruction After the Second World War

Postcolonial Nations in Asia and Latin America

Empires Into Nations: Africa and the Middle East After the Second World War

Coexistence, Confrontation, and the New Global Economy

The International Revolt Against Soviet Communism

The Changing Modern World

Filters

Besides natural science, a potent seventeenth-century force causing a questioning of old beliefs _was