Question 1

David Stephens's model of learning and environmental stability predicts that learning will be favored when environmental predictability is:

Accepted Answer

A)  low within an individual's lifetime but high between generations. 
B)  high within an individual's lifetime and between generations. 
C)  high within an individual's lifetime but low between generations. 
D)  low within an individual's lifetime and between generations. 
E)  intermediate within an individual's lifetime and high between generations. C

Question 2

In this chapter, you were introduced to the relationship between parental investment and between-sex differences in learning. Under what parental investment conditions should females and males have equal ability to learn? When should females exhibit greater learning abilities than males? When should males exhibit greater learning abilities than females?

Accepted Answer

Females and males should have equal ability to learn under conditions of equal parental investment from both parents. When both parents invest equally in the offspring, there is no differential pressure for one sex to prioritize learning over the other.

Females may exhibit greater learning abilities than males when the parental investment from the mother is significantly higher than that from the father. This can happen in species where females provide the majority of care for offspring, leading to a greater need for learning and problem-solving skills to ensure the survival of the offspring.

Conversely, males may exhibit greater learning abilities than females when the parental investment from the father is significantly higher than that from the mother. In species where males provide more care for offspring, they may have a greater need for learning and problem-solving skills to ensure the survival of their offspring.

Overall, the relationship between parental investment and between-sex differences in learning highlights the importance of understanding the evolutionary and environmental factors that shape learning abilities in different species.

Question 3

Discuss the general differences between Pavlovian (classical) conditioning and operant conditioning. In terms of what we can glean about animal learning, what are some similarities and differences between these two conditioning paradigms?

Accepted Answer

Pavlovian (classical) conditioning and operant conditioning are two different forms of associative learning that have been extensively studied in animal behavior.

Pavlovian conditioning involves the association between a neutral stimulus and a biologically significant stimulus. In the classic example, Pavlov demonstrated that dogs could learn to associate the sound of a bell (neutral stimulus) with the presentation of food (biologically significant stimulus), eventually leading to the dogs salivating at the sound of the bell alone. In Pavlovian conditioning, the organism learns to associate two stimuli that occur in close proximity to each other.

On the other hand, operant conditioning involves the association between a behavior and its consequences. In operant conditioning, the organism learns to associate its own actions with the outcomes of those actions. For example, a rat in a Skinner box might learn to press a lever in order to receive a food pellet. The reinforcement or punishment of the behavior influences the likelihood of the behavior occurring again in the future.

In terms of similarities, both forms of conditioning involve learning through association. They both demonstrate how environmental cues can influence behavior and how organisms can adapt to their environment through learning. Additionally, both forms of conditioning have been shown to be subject to extinction and generalization effects.

However, there are also differences between the two paradigms. The most notable difference is the nature of the association being learned - in Pavlovian conditioning, it is between two stimuli, while in operant conditioning, it is between a behavior and its consequences. Additionally, the timing of the association is different - in Pavlovian conditioning, the association is formed between stimuli that occur close together in time, whereas in operant conditioning, the association is formed between a behavior and its consequences, which may be delayed.

Overall, both Pavlovian and operant conditioning provide valuable insights into the mechanisms of animal learning and behavior, and they offer complementary perspectives on how organisms learn to adapt to their environment.

Question 4

Phenotypic plasticity refers to the ability of an organism to adopt:

Accepted Answer

A)  alternative phenotypes depending on environmental and/or social conditions. 
B)  many different phenotypes simultaneously. 
C)  different morphological phenotypes with no change in behavioral phenotype. 
D)  different behavioral phenotypes within no change in morphological phenotype. 
E)  one specific phenotype that is fixed throughout the organism's lifetime.

Question 5

An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that:

Accepted Answer

A)  reinforces certain behavioral responses. 
B)  an animal habituates to immediately. 
C)  fails to elicit a response unless associated with a second stimulus. 
D)  inhibits an animal from performing certain behavioral responses. 
E)  elicits a response in the absence of training.

Question 6

Sensitization is the process by which:

Accepted Answer

A)  animals become less likely to exhibit a response to a stimulus over time. 
B)  animals become more likely to exhibit a response to a stimulus over time. 
C)  learning to associate one CS with a US blocks the ability to associate another CS with the same US. 
D)  one event predicts the occurrence of a second event. 
E)  one event predicts that a second event will not occur.

Question 7

Which of the following statements or phrases is NOT associated with the law of effect?

Accepted Answer

A)  second-order classical conditioning 
B)  associations between stimulus and response being strengthened if the response to a stimulus is followed by a positive reinforcer 
C)  Thorndike's early work on instrumental learning in cats using puzzle boxes 
D)  instrumental conditioning and operant responses 
E)  associations between stimulus and response being weakened if the response to a stimulus is followed by a negative reinforcer

Question 8

Learning is best defined as:

Accepted Answer

A)  a process by which only aversive stimuli elicit changes in behavior. 
B)  a permanent change in behavior resulting from hormonal but not neurobiological changes. 
C)  a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience. 
D)  changes in behavior that result from past experience. 
E)  a process by which only positive stimuli elicit changes in behavior.

Question 9

What types of environments would be conducive to natural selection favoring the ability to learn? Discuss your answer in terms of David Stephens' dichotomy between withinand between-lifetime environmental stability. Also, read the paper by Dunlap & Stephens (2009) titled "Components of Change in the Evolution of Learning and Unlearned Preference" (Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B, vol. 276, pp. 3201-3208). Briefly describe the mathematical model that the authors present, focusing particularly on how "reliability of experience" and "predictability of the best action" are factored into the model. Next, describe the experimental evolution approach taken by the authors to test the predictions of their model. What did they find? What do their data say about the factors that influence the evolution of learning?

Accepted Answer

The answer of What types of environments would be conducive...

Question 10

Appetitive stimulus is to excitatory conditioning as 	___________________ is to ___________________.

Accepted Answer

A)  sensitized stimulus; habituation 
B)  blocking; positive reinforcement 
C)  negative stimulus; operant conditioning 
D)  aversive stimulus; inhibitory conditioning 
E)  classical conditioning; instrumental conditioning

Question 11

Instrumental conditioning involves:

Accepted Answer

A)  providing positive reinforcement only during conditioning. 
B)  pairing of an unconditioned and conditioned stimulus. 
C)  habituating the subjects to certain stimuli. 
D)  preventing the animal from performing specific behaviors during the conditioning process. 
E)  positive and/or negative reinforcement of a behavioral response.

Question 12

Read the paper by Kotrschal and colleagues (2013), "Artificial Selection on Relative Brain Size in the Guppy Reveals Costs and Benefits of Evolving a Larger Brain" (Current Biology, 23, 1-4). Describe the artificial selection procedure and the major behavioral and morphological differences between the small-brained and large-brained guppy lines. How do these data relate to the "expensive-tissue hypothesis"? Expand upon why it is important to consider functional trade-offs when studying the evolution of learning.

Accepted Answer

The answer of Read the paper by Kotrschal and colleagues...

Question 13

Which of the following scientists revolutionized the field of instrumental learning by developing an apparatus wherein lever pushing would deliver a reward?

Accepted Answer

A)  B. F. Skinner 
B)  Ivan Pavlov 
C)  Edward Thorndike 
D)  John Garcia 
E)  Harry Harlow

Question 14

When conducting laboratory studies on animal learning, what sorts of precautions should you take to ensure that your interpretations of the role of learning in your animal system are accurate? If you were not studying learning, why should you remain cognizant of the learning abilities of your study organism?

Accepted Answer

The answer of When conducting laboratory studies on animal learning,...

Question 15

Why were Garcia's studies on rats in the mid-1960s important for initiating the study of learning from an evolutionary perspective?

Accepted Answer

The answer of Why were Garcia's studies on rats in...

Question 16

When psychologists construct extinction curves, they are examining:

Accepted Answer

A)  the lifespan of the organism in question. 
B)  the strength of an animal's behavioral response to instrumental conditioning. 
C)  how long an animal recalls associated events when continuously exposed to paired stimuli. 
D)  how long an animal remembers a paired association once the pairing has stopped. 
E)  how long it takes for sensitization to occur.

Exam 5: Learning