Exam 14: From Compromise to Secession

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Millard Fillmore was the 13th President of the United States, serving from 1850 to 1853. He was born on January 7, 1800, in Summerhill, New York, and died on March 8, 1874, in Buffalo, New York. Fillmore was the last member of the Whig Party to hold the office of President.

Before becoming President, Fillmore served as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from New York and was elected as the Comptroller of New York, which was the first time that office had been filled by a direct popular election. He became Vice President in 1849 under President Zachary Taylor.

Fillmore's ascent to the presidency occurred after the unexpected death of President Taylor, who died from a stomach-related illness on July 9, 1850. As Vice President, Fillmore took the oath of office and became President, serving the remainder of Taylor's term.

One of the most significant and controversial aspects of Fillmore's presidency was his support for the Compromise of 1850, a series of laws passed by Congress in an attempt to resolve the issue of slavery in the territories. The Compromise included the Fugitive Slave Act, which required that escaped slaves be returned to their owners even if they were found in free states. Fillmore's enforcement of this act was deeply unpopular in the North and contributed to the growing sectional divide over the issue of slavery.

Fillmore's presidency also saw the opening of Japan to the West with the mission of Commodore Matthew Perry in 1853, which eventually led to the signing of the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854, opening trade between Japan and the United States.

After his presidency, Fillmore remained active in politics. He ran for President again in 1856 as the candidate for the Know-Nothing Party, also known as the American Party, but was unsuccessful. His support for the Fugitive Slave Act and his association with the Know-Nothing Party, which was known for its anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic sentiments, have marred his historical reputation.

Fillmore's legacy is mixed, with some viewing him as a cautious leader trying to maintain unity during a period of great division, while others criticize him for his support of policies that were detrimental to the cause of abolition and harmful to the moral standing of the nation. Despite his controversial presidency, Millard Fillmore's role in the events leading up to the Civil War and his impact on the political landscape of the time make him a significant figure in American history.

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James Buchanan was the 15th President of the United States, serving from 1857 to 1861. Born on April 23, 1791, in Cove Gap, Pennsylvania, Buchanan had a long and distinguished career in public service before becoming president. He served as a member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives, a U.S. Representative, a U.S. Senator, the Minister to Russia, the Secretary of State under President James K. Polk, and the Minister to the United Kingdom.

Buchanan's presidency is often criticized for his inability to address the escalating tensions between the Northern and Southern states over the issues of slavery and states' rights. His tenure was marked by several critical events that further divided the nation, including the Dred Scott decision in 1857, in which the Supreme Court ruled that African Americans could not be citizens and that Congress had no authority to prohibit slavery in U.S. territories. Buchanan supported the decision, which inflamed the abolitionist movement in the North.

Another significant event during Buchanan's presidency was the economic panic of 1857, which led to a severe national depression. Buchanan's response to the crisis was limited, as he believed in a small federal government and felt that relief efforts were the responsibility of the states.

Perhaps the most consequential action of Buchanan's presidency was his handling of the secession crisis following the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860. Buchanan held the view that states did not have the right to secede from the Union, but he also believed that the federal government had no constitutional authority to coerce a state back into the Union. As a result, he did little to prevent the secession of seven Southern states, which formed the Confederate States of America before he left office.

Buchanan's presidency ended just before the American Civil War began. He was succeeded by Abraham Lincoln, who inherited the monumental task of resolving the Union's division and leading the nation through the Civil War. Buchanan retired to his estate, Wheatland, in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where he lived until his death on June 1, 1868.

James Buchanan's presidency is significant because it directly preceded the Civil War, and his lack of decisive action during the secession crisis is often cited as a contributing factor to the outbreak of the conflict. His leadership—or perceived lack thereof—during this critical period in American history has led many historians to rank him among the least effective U.S. Presidents.