Exam 4:How Do Neurons Use Electrical Signals to Transmit Information? Part A

Correct Answer:

Answered by Examlex AI Copilot

The sodium-potassium pump, also known as Na+/K+-ATPase, is a vital membrane-bound enzyme found in the cells of many organisms. It plays a crucial role in maintaining the electrochemical gradient across the cell membrane, which is essential for various cellular processes, including nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and regulation of cell volume.

Here's how the sodium-potassium pump works:

1. **Binding of Sodium Ions**: The pump has specific binding sites for sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) ions. In its resting state, the pump has a high affinity for sodium ions inside the cell. Three sodium ions bind to their specific sites on the pump.

2. **Phosphorylation**: The pump is an ATPase, meaning it hydrolyzes adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to provide the energy required for its function. ATP binds to the pump, and a phosphate group from ATP is transferred to the pump, specifically to a conserved aspartic acid residue. This process is called phosphorylation, and it causes a conformational change in the pump.

3. **Conformational Change and Sodium Release**: The phosphorylation induces the pump to change its shape, reducing its affinity for sodium ions. As a result, the three bound sodium ions are released into the extracellular space.

4. **Binding of Potassium Ions**: The new conformation of the pump has a high affinity for potassium ions. Two potassium ions from the extracellular fluid bind to their specific sites on the pump.

5. **Dephosphorylation**: The binding of potassium ions triggers the release of the phosphate group from the pump. This dephosphorylation leads to another conformational change, which increases the pump's affinity for sodium ions and decreases its affinity for potassium ions.

6. **Release of Potassium Ions and Reset**: The two potassium ions are released into the cytoplasm of the cell as the pump returns to its original conformation. The pump is now ready to bind sodium ions again, and the cycle repeats.

This active transport mechanism moves sodium and potassium ions against their concentration gradients. Specifically, it pumps three sodium ions out of the cell and two potassium ions into the cell for each ATP molecule consumed. This results in a higher concentration of sodium ions outside the cell and a higher concentration of potassium ions inside the cell.

The sodium-potassium pump is electrogenic, meaning it contributes to the separation of charge across the membrane. Since three positive charges (Na+) are moved out and only two positive charges (K+) are moved in, there is a net movement of one positive charge out of the cell per cycle. This activity helps establish and maintain the membrane potential, which is critical for the function of excitable cells, such as neurons and muscle cells.

Correct Answer:

Answered by Examlex AI Copilot

The nerve impulse, or action potential, travels from the axon hillock to the end of the axon without degrading in magnitude due to the way action potentials are generated and propagated along the axon. Here's how it works:

1. **All-or-None Principle**: Action potentials operate on an all-or-none principle, meaning that once the threshold is reached at the axon hillock, a full action potential is generated. There is no partial signal; it's either a full response or none at all.

2. **Ion Channels and Membrane Potential**: The axon hillock has a high concentration of voltage-gated sodium channels. When a neuron is stimulated and the membrane potential reaches a certain threshold, these channels open, allowing sodium ions (Na+) to rush into the cell. This influx of positive charge depolarizes the membrane and generates the action potential.

3. **Propagation**: The action potential propagates along the axon as a wave of depolarization. As the action potential moves, it opens adjacent voltage-gated sodium channels further down the axon. This causes a domino effect, where the depolarization of one segment of the membrane triggers the depolarization of the next.

4. **Refractory Period**: After an action potential passes, the section of the axon that just fired enters a refractory period during which it cannot fire again immediately. This ensures that the action potential moves in one direction only – away from the axon hillock and towards the axon terminals.

5. **Saltatory Conduction in Myelinated Axons**: In myelinated axons, the myelin sheath acts as an insulator, speeding up the transmission of action potentials. The myelin sheath is interrupted at regular intervals by nodes of Ranvier, where the axon membrane is exposed. Action potentials jump from node to node in a process called saltatory conduction. This allows the action potential to travel quickly and prevents it from degrading as it moves along the axon.

6. **Ionic Balance and the Sodium-Potassium Pump**: After the action potential passes, the sodium-potassium pump (a type of active transport) works to restore the original concentrations of sodium and potassium ions inside and outside the neuron. This is essential for maintaining the neuron's resting potential and its ability to fire another action potential.

7. **Energy Use**: It's important to note that while the magnitude of the action potential remains constant along the axon, the process of generating and propagating action potentials is metabolically demanding. The neuron uses energy, primarily in the form of ATP, to maintain the ion gradients that make action potentials possible.

In summary, the non-degrading nature of the action potential as it travels along the axon is due to the all-or-none firing mechanism, the opening of voltage-gated ion channels, the refractory period that prevents backflow, saltatory conduction in myelinated axons, and the active restoration of ion gradients by the sodium-potassium pump. These processes ensure that the signal remains strong and consistent from the axon hillock to the synaptic terminals.

Correct Answer:

Answered by Examlex AI Copilot

Initiating an action potential involves a series of processes that occur in the neurons, which are the excitable cells of the nervous system. Here is a detailed explanation of the steps involved:

1. Resting Membrane Potential: Before an action potential begins, a neuron is at its resting membrane potential, typically around -70 millivolts (mV). This electrical potential difference across the neuronal membrane is maintained by the sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+ ATPase), which pumps 3 sodium ions (Na+) out of the cell and 2 potassium ions (K+) into the cell, and by the differential permeability of the membrane to Na+ and K+ ions.

2. Stimulus: An action potential is initiated when a neuron receives a stimulus strong enough to depolarize the membrane. This stimulus can be a chemical signal from another neuron (neurotransmitter), a mechanical stimulus, or any other form of excitatory input.

3. Depolarization to Threshold: If the stimulus is strong enough to depolarize the cell membrane to a critical level, known as the threshold potential (usually around -55 mV), voltage-gated sodium channels open. This threshold is crucial because it determines whether or not an action potential will be generated.

4. Rapid Depolarization: Once the threshold is reached, the opened voltage-gated sodium channels allow Na+ ions to rush into the neuron due to the electrochemical gradient. This influx of positive charges rapidly depolarizes the membrane, causing the membrane potential to become positive, reaching up to about +30 to +40 mV.

5. Inactivation of Sodium Channels and Opening of Potassium Channels: As the membrane potential peaks, the inactivation gates of the sodium channels close, stopping the influx of Na+. Almost simultaneously, voltage-gated potassium channels open, allowing K+ ions to flow out of the neuron, following their electrochemical gradient.

6. Repolarization: The efflux of K+ ions out of the neuron starts to repolarize the membrane, bringing the membrane potential back toward the resting level.

7. Hyperpolarization: The potassium channels are slow to close, so there is a brief period where more K+ ions leave the neuron than are necessary to reach the resting potential. This causes the membrane potential to become slightly more negative than the resting potential, a state known as hyperpolarization.

8. Refractory Periods: After an action potential, the neuron enters a refractory period, which is divided into the absolute refractory period (when no new action potential can be initiated) and the relative refractory period (when a stronger-than-normal stimulus is required to initiate an action potential). During the refractory periods, the neuron is resetting its membrane potential and ion gradients.

9. Return to Resting State: The sodium-potassium pump works to restore the original distribution of ions, moving Na+ out of the cell and K+ back into the cell, re-establishing the resting membrane potential and preparing the neuron for the next action potential.

These processes allow neurons to transmit electrical signals rapidly and efficiently along their axons, communicating with other neurons, muscles, or glands, and enabling the complex functions of the nervous system.