Exam 22: Conflict and Development

Correct Answer:

Verified

Plotting "the war in Afghanistan" as one event in a database would clearly be misleading. The first phase started in April 1978 when the Afghan Communists seized power and militant resistance formed. In December 1979, the Soviet Union sent in troops, and the resistance received support from the West and the Middle East. The conflict was now an internationalized civil war. After Soviet military withdrawal in 1989, rival Afghan factions turned on each other. This civil war lasted roughly until 1996 when the Taliban seized Kabul. In October 2001, US-led forces invaded the country and, with the help of local factions, defeated the Taliban. After a brief peace, violence returned and soon developed into an insurgency that challenged the government and the international forces in almost all parts of the country. How would we approach these Afghan conflicts using a qualitative approach? Starting from the notion that war and development are not necessarily mutually exclusive, a first task is to explore what kinds of governing structures, social relations, and economic activity developed during this long period of upheaval. In some areas, warlords emerged; in other areas, traditional leaders or new political movements held sway. Social and economic capital accumulated during periods of warfare was invested in times of (relative) peace for personal or community benefits. In Herat in western Afghanistan, Ismail Khan beautified public parks and restored the magnificent mosaic arches that now grace the city entrance. The Taliban regime represented early state formation by re-establishing a greater central control over military force and a uniform system of social control. The Western-led invasion in 2001 permitted new, progressive social forces to blossom. Nevertheless, the most obvious impact of the long wars was destruction. Successive waves of fighting left a trail of death, disintegration, and displacement. The legal economy stagnated. Infrastructure was destroyed. Violence was pervasive-not only organized warfare among fighting units but also alleged war crimes, crimes against humanity, and massive human rights violations. For those close to the event, it was difficult to see that this could be the foundation for new development.

Correct Answer:

Verified

In Capital, Marx described how he saw the transition to the capitalist mode of production as having emerged through a process he called primitive accumulation. His account of primitive accumulation was closely linked to his understanding of capitalism, which he saw as historically distinct: capitalists owned the means of production, whereas workers had to sell their labour to survive because they had no other means (e.g., land) of subsistence. This state of affairs, in which capitalists owned all the means of production and workers none, had not come about naturally. Rather, it was a result of a process of primitive accumulation that entailed conquest, enslavement, robbery, murder, briefly force. This resonates with the literature on conflict and development, specifically in regards to colonialism. The colonial system facilitated the accumulation of riches from Asia, Africa, and America to capitalists in Europe, Marx wrote. Here, the methods of primitive accumulation were especially brutal. The treasures captured outside Europe by undisguised looting, enslavement, and murder floated back to the mother country and were there turned into capital.