Exam 1: Basic Concepts

Jennifer's cat Pinky is constantly scratching itself. Apparently Pinky has fleas.

Cats can see in the dark because they have a special mirror-like layer of cells behind their retina called the tapetum lucidum. When light passes through the retina, it is reflected back through it by this layer of cells, and this provides additional stimulation to the retina's light receptors.

Maria is a hypochondriac. Therefore, she always worries about her health.

No theocracies are true democracies. No secular governments are theocracies. Thus, some secular governments are true democracies.

Karl Marx believed that the key to human history was class conflict. According to Marxist theory, the bourgeoisie are locked in inevitable conflict with the proletariat. This bitter struggle can end only when members of the working class unite in revolution and throw off their chains of bondage. The result will be a classless society, one free of exploitation, in which everyone will work according to their abilities and receive according to their needs. James M. Henslin, Essentials of Sociology

Which of the following is a necessary condition for being a cat?

The colors of all glowing objects have the same origin: They come from atoms and molecules that have been excited to states of high energy. Atoms in burning fireworks and stars become excited by absorbing energy as heat. They then throw off their excess energy as light. The colors emitted by an atom depend on how its electrons are arranged. So by investigating the colors an atom emits, we can determine its internal structure. Loretta Jones and Peter Atkins, Chemistry, 4^th ed.

Which of the following are all inductive arguments?

Graffiti painted on that vacant building says "Boycott Meat." Therefore, it's clear that we should all become vegetarians.

Which of the following are all conclusion indicators?

Undocumented immigrants pay local sales taxes, and many of them also pay state, local, and federal income tax and Social Security tax. They also purchase items from local merchants, increasing the amount these merchants pay in taxes. In addition, they work for low salaries, which increases the earnings of their employers and the amount of taxes these employers pay. Thus, it is not correct to say that undocumented immigrants contribute nothing to the communities in which they live.

If wind turbines are extensively deployed, solar power systems are installed, bioenergy technologies are exploited, electric cars are perfected and mass produced, and a high-speed rail network is constructed, then the nation will be weaned off its addiction to oil, climate change will be slowed, and billions of dollars in oil money will be redirected from nations that hate us to improving our own standard of living.

Either Jennifer Lawrence or Elon Musk is a popular film star. But Jennifer Lawrence is not a film star at all. Therefore, Elon Musk is a popular film star.

The farther away we look in distance, the further back we look in time. This fact allows us to see what parts of the universe looked like in the distant past. For example, if we look at a galaxy that is 1 billion light years away, its light has taken 1 billion years to reach us-which means we are seeing it as it looked 1 billion years ago. Jeffrey Bennett, et al., The Cosmic Perspective, 3^rd edition

The person usually credited with having originated logic is:

Entertainer Rush Limbaugh claims that supply side economics really works. Therefore, we should believe that supply side economics does indeed work.

PART A Some Americans are blond women, since some Americans are blond, and some Americans are women. Which of the following is a correct symbolization of this argument? PART B Which of the following substitutions proves the argument invalid? A) A = apples, B = red, W = fruits. B) A = fruits, B = green, W = apples. C) A = lemons, B = purple, W = fruits. D) A = fruits, B = yellow, W = lemons. E) A = fruits, B = purple, W = lemons.

Every individual is capable of injuring or killing himself. This potentiality is a fundamental expression of human freedom. Self-destructive behavior may be regarded as sinful and penalized by means of informal sanctions. But it should not be regarded as a crime or (mental) disease, justifying or warranting the use of the police powers of the state for its control. Therefore, it is absurd to deprive an adult of a drug (or of anything else) because he might use it to kill himself. Thomas Szasz, "The Ethics of Addiction".

Given that figure A is an equilateral triangle, and one of its sides has a length of 1 foot. It follows that its area is less than 1 square foot.

An argument that concludes something is true because somebody has said so is: