Question 1

Does every generalization have negative instances?

Accepted Answer

A) Yes, because no generalization is true in every case. 
B) Yes, because every generalization has positive instances, and there must be a balance. 
C) No, because there is never more than one negative instance.No plural instances! 
D) No, because all generalizations are true in every case. 
E) No, because a true generalization is true in every case. 
A) Yes, because no generalization is true in every case. 
B) Yes, because every generalization has positive instances, and there must be a balance. 
C) No, because there is never more than one negative instance.No plural instances! 
D) No, because all generalizations are true in every case. 
E) No, because a true generalization is true in every case.

Question 2

I want to know why my yard is so well lit at night.So I watch it over a period of several nights and notice that it is most well lit when the moon is full, less well lit at quarter moon, and most poorly lit at new moon.Therefore, I conclude that moonlight is principally responsible for lighting my yard at night.Which method did I use to determine this?

Accepted Answer

A) agreement 
B) difference 
C) joint method 
D) concomitant variations 
E) residues 
A) agreement 
B) difference 
C) joint method 
D) concomitant variations 
E) residues

Question 3

Does the method of concomitant variations show that a factor is a necessary or sufficient condition?

Accepted Answer

A) sufficient 
B) necessary 
C) neither necessary nor sufficient 
D) both necessary and sufficient 
E) necessary in one respect, but sufficient in another 
A) sufficient 
B) necessary 
C) neither necessary nor sufficient 
D) both necessary and sufficient 
E) necessary in one respect, but sufficient in another

Question 4

Suppose that I want to make the generalization that no fungus contains chlorophyll.Which of the following samples would be the best basis?

Accepted Answer

A) the fungus collection of a biology professor who specializes in fungi 
B) a random sampling of 5% of the 100,000 known species of fungus 
C) a collection of all known fungus species in Brazil, where fungi are known to be extremely diverse 
D) twenty species of fungus from each continent, and another twenty from each ocean 
E) one species from every known genus of fungus 
A) the fungus collection of a biology professor who specializes in fungi 
B) a random sampling of 5% of the 100,000 known species of fungus 
C) a collection of all known fungus species in Brazil, where fungi are known to be extremely diverse 
D) twenty species of fungus from each continent, and another twenty from each ocean 
E) one species from every known genus of fungus

Question 5

Suppose that we try very hard to find some disconfirming instances for a generalization, but can't find any.Can we still make a strong generalization?

Accepted Answer

A) No, a generalization requires disconfirming instances.(Thus the expression "the exception that proves the rule.") 
B) No, because unless we have identified a disconfirming instance, our generalization will have confirmation bias. 
C) No.We can draw a generalization, but it will not be strong. 
D) Yes, because the absence of disconfirming instances supports the generalization. 
E) Yes, because searching for disconfirming instances is not a very important part of making generalizations. 
A) No, a generalization requires disconfirming instances.(Thus the expression "the exception that proves the rule.") 
B) No, because unless we have identified a disconfirming instance, our generalization will have confirmation bias. 
C) No.We can draw a generalization, but it will not be strong. 
D) Yes, because the absence of disconfirming instances supports the generalization. 
E) Yes, because searching for disconfirming instances is not a very important part of making generalizations.

Question 6

Is not breathing for one minute a necessary or sufficient condition for being dead?

Accepted Answer

A) necessary 
B) sufficient 
C) neither necessary nor sufficient 
D) both necessary and sufficient 
E) either necessary or sufficient, but not both 
A) necessary 
B) sufficient 
C) neither necessary nor sufficient 
D) both necessary and sufficient 
E) either necessary or sufficient, but not both

Question 7

Marie and Pierre Curie were working with an ore that contained uranium, but found that its radioactivity was higher than could be explained by the uranium in it.What conclusion would be suggested by the method of residues?

Accepted Answer

A) The ore contained another radioactive element. 
B) Uranium is not radioactive. 
C) The uranium in the ore was different from other uranium. 
D) The ore should be thrown away immediately and all of its residues cleaned up. 
E) Radioactivity works differently than the Curies had previously believed. 
A) The ore contained another radioactive element. 
B) Uranium is not radioactive. 
C) The uranium in the ore was different from other uranium. 
D) The ore should be thrown away immediately and all of its residues cleaned up. 
E) Radioactivity works differently than the Curies had previously believed.

Question 8

Mill's method of concomitant variations helps to identify causes by observing:

Accepted Answer

A) whether adding additional factors results in an increase or decrease in the effect 
B) whether an increase or decrease in the suspected cause results in an increase or decrease in the effect 
C) a larger sample of instances 
D) a more diverse sample of instances 
E) whether the effect varies over time, while the suspected causal factor remains the same 
A) whether adding additional factors results in an increase or decrease in the effect 
B) whether an increase or decrease in the suspected cause results in an increase or decrease in the effect 
C) a larger sample of instances 
D) a more diverse sample of instances 
E) whether the effect varies over time, while the suspected causal factor remains the same

Question 9

Suppose that an argument has several steps.Could some of the steps be deductive while others are inductive?

Accepted Answer

A) No, arguments must be entirely deductive or entirely inductive. 
B) No, since the inductive steps would take away from the validity of the deductive steps. 
C) Yes, any of the steps could be deductive or inductive. 
D) Yes, but only if the final step is inductive. 
E) Yes, but only if the final step is deductive. 
A) No, arguments must be entirely deductive or entirely inductive. 
B) No, since the inductive steps would take away from the validity of the deductive steps. 
C) Yes, any of the steps could be deductive or inductive. 
D) Yes, but only if the final step is inductive. 
E) Yes, but only if the final step is deductive.

Question 10

A given causal factor a is a sufficient condition for an effect E when:

Accepted Answer

A) a is enough to guarantee that E occurs 
B) E only occurs in the absence of a 
C) E occurs more often than a occurs 
D) a and E usually occur at the same time 
E) E cannot occur without a 
A) a is enough to guarantee that E occurs 
B) E only occurs in the absence of a 
C) E occurs more often than a occurs 
D) a and E usually occur at the same time 
E) E cannot occur without a

Question 11

Suppose that we examine three cases in which the factors given below coincide with the occurrence of effect E.Which factor would the method of agreement suggest is responsible for E? Case 1: $a , b , c$
Case 2: $a , d , f$
Case 3: $a , g h$

Accepted Answer

A) a 
B) b 
C) d 
D) g 
E) b, c, d, e, f, or g 
A) a 
B) b 
C) d 
D) g 
E) b, c, d, e, f, or g

Question 12

In an inductive argument:

Accepted Answer

A) if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true 
B) if the conclusion is true, then the premises must be true 
C) either the premises and conclusion are all false or they are all true 
D) the premises support the truth of the conclusion, but do not guarantee it 
E) if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be false 
A) if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true 
B) if the conclusion is true, then the premises must be true 
C) either the premises and conclusion are all false or they are all true 
D) the premises support the truth of the conclusion, but do not guarantee it 
E) if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be false

Question 13

Mill's method of difference helps to identify causes by:

Accepted Answer

A) examining the differences between the suspected causal factor and the effect 
B) examining cases in which the suspected cause is not present in order to see whether the effect still occurs 
C) examining cases in which the suspected cause is present in order to see whether different effects occur 
D) eliminating causal explanations about which most people disagree 
E) eliminating causal explanations about which most experts disagree 
A) examining the differences between the suspected causal factor and the effect 
B) examining cases in which the suspected cause is not present in order to see whether the effect still occurs 
C) examining cases in which the suspected cause is present in order to see whether different effects occur 
D) eliminating causal explanations about which most people disagree 
E) eliminating causal explanations about which most experts disagree

Question 14

Mill's method of residues is used when part of an effect (E) can already be explained by certain causal factors (such as a and b).It provides evidence for an additional causal factor, c, by:

Accepted Answer

A) directly observing c causing E 
B) showing that E can still occur in the absence of a or b 
C) showing that E can still occur when both a and b are absent 
D) showing that c is more important than a or b 
E) showing that a and b only explain part of E 
A) directly observing c causing E 
B) showing that E can still occur in the absence of a or b 
C) showing that E can still occur when both a and b are absent 
D) showing that c is more important than a or b 
E) showing that a and b only explain part of E

Question 15

Is speaking Spanish a necessary or sufficient condition for being Mexican?

Accepted Answer

A) necessary 
B) sufficient 
C) neither necessary nor sufficient 
D) both necessary and sufficient 
E) either necessary or sufficient, but not both 
A) necessary 
B) sufficient 
C) neither necessary nor sufficient 
D) both necessary and sufficient 
E) either necessary or sufficient, but not both

Question 16

When a generalization is made, is it always possible to have a complete enumeration?

Accepted Answer

A) No, because it is never possible to have a complete enumeration. 
B) No, because there can only be a complete enumeration when there are fewer than 50 instances. 
C) No, because sometimes there are too many instances to examine them all. 
D) Yes, because if there is not a complete enumeration, then you can't make a generalization at all. 
E) Yes, because even an infinite number of instances could be thoroughly examined in a finite number of clusters. 
A) No, because it is never possible to have a complete enumeration. 
B) No, because there can only be a complete enumeration when there are fewer than 50 instances. 
C) No, because sometimes there are too many instances to examine them all. 
D) Yes, because if there is not a complete enumeration, then you can't make a generalization at all. 
E) Yes, because even an infinite number of instances could be thoroughly examined in a finite number of clusters.

Question 17

Which of the following is a necessary condition for playing the piano?

Accepted Answer

A) sheet music 
B) lessons 
C) a piano 
D) well-tuned piano strings 
E) an audience 
A) sheet music 
B) lessons 
C) a piano 
D) well-tuned piano strings 
E) an audience

Question 18

The first rule of generalization is that the sample should be sufficiently _____ and _____.

Accepted Answer

A) numerous; similar 
B) numerous; various 
C) simple; similar 
D) simple; abstract 
E) simple; various 
A) numerous; similar 
B) numerous; various 
C) simple; similar 
D) simple; abstract 
E) simple; various

Question 19

Suppose that I want to make the generalization that all Americans who have served in the military are good marksmen.What would be the best way to go about looking for disconfirming instances?

Accepted Answer

A) Look at soldiers who have been wounded in battle. 
B) Look at soldiers who suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder. 
C) Look at soldiers who served fewer than four years in the military. 
D) Look at soldiers who were prematurely discharged from the military. 
E) Look at soldiers who belong to the Veterans of Foreign Wars. 
A) Look at soldiers who have been wounded in battle. 
B) Look at soldiers who suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder. 
C) Look at soldiers who served fewer than four years in the military. 
D) Look at soldiers who were prematurely discharged from the military. 
E) Look at soldiers who belong to the Veterans of Foreign Wars.

Question 20

Suppose that I suspect that running my ceiling fan stirs up dust and causes my table to become dusty.How could I use the method of concomitant variations to confirm this?

Accepted Answer

A) Temporarily replace the table with a different table to see whether the new table also becomes dusty. 
B) Remove the ceiling fan for a day to see whether the table still becomes dusty. 
C) Observe whether running the fan for longer/shorter periods of time corresponds to greater/lesser amounts of dust on the table. 
D) Vacuum the carpet and then observe whether the table still becomes dusty. 
E) Test the air quality while the fan is running to see whether it has dust in it. 
A) Temporarily replace the table with a different table to see whether the new table also becomes dusty. 
B) Remove the ceiling fan for a day to see whether the table still becomes dusty. 
C) Observe whether running the fan for longer/shorter periods of time corresponds to greater/lesser amounts of dust on the table. 
D) Vacuum the carpet and then observe whether the table still becomes dusty. 
E) Test the air quality while the fan is running to see whether it has dust in it.

Does every generalization have negative instances?

Does the method of concomitant variations show that a factor is a necessary or sufficient condition?

Suppose that I want to make the generalization that no fungus contains chlorophyll.Which of the following samples would be the best basis?

Suppose that we try very hard to find some disconfirming instances for a generalization, but can't find any.Can we still make a strong generalization?

Is not breathing for one minute a necessary or sufficient condition for being dead?

Marie and Pierre Curie were working with an ore that contained uranium, but found that its radioactivity was higher than could be explained by the uranium in it.What conclusion would be suggested by the method of residues?

Mill's method of concomitant variations helps to identify causes by observing:

Suppose that an argument has several steps.Could some of the steps be deductive while others are inductive?

A given causal factor a is a sufficient condition for an effect E when:

Suppose that we examine three cases in which the factors given below coincide with the occurrence of effect E.Which factor would the method of agreement suggest is responsible for E? Case 1: $a , b , c$ Case 2: $a , d , f$ Case 3: $a , g h$

In an inductive argument:

Mill's method of difference helps to identify causes by:

Mill's method of residues is used when part of an effect (E) can already be explained by certain causal factors (such as a and b).It provides evidence for an additional causal factor, c, by:

Is speaking Spanish a necessary or sufficient condition for being Mexican?

When a generalization is made, is it always possible to have a complete enumeration?

Which of the following is a necessary condition for playing the piano?

The first rule of generalization is that the sample should be sufficiently _ and _.

Suppose that I want to make the generalization that all Americans who have served in the military are good marksmen.What would be the best way to go about looking for disconfirming instances?

Suppose that I suspect that running my ceiling fan stirs up dust and causes my table to become dusty.How could I use the method of concomitant variations to confirm this?

Classification

Definitions

Propositions

Argument Analysis

Fallacies

Categorical Propositions

Categorical Syllogisms

Reasoning With Syllogisms

Propositional Logic-Propositions

Propositional Logic-Arguments

Predicate Logic

Argument by Analogy

Statistical Reasoning

Explanation

Probability

Filters

Exam 12: Inductive Generalizations

Does every generalization have negative instances?

Does the method of concomitant variations show that a factor is a necessary or sufficient condition?

Suppose that I want to make the generalization that no fungus contains chlorophyll.Which of the following samples would be the best basis?

Suppose that we try very hard to find some disconfirming instances for a generalization, but can't find any.Can we still make a strong generalization?

Is not breathing for one minute a necessary or sufficient condition for being dead?

Marie and Pierre Curie were working with an ore that contained uranium, but found that its radioactivity was higher than could be explained by the uranium in it.What conclusion would be suggested by the method of residues?

Mill's method of concomitant variations helps to identify causes by observing:

Suppose that an argument has several steps.Could some of the steps be deductive while others are inductive?

A given causal factor a is a sufficient condition for an effect E when:

Suppose that we examine three cases in which the factors given below coincide with the occurrence of effect E.Which factor would the method of agreement suggest is responsible for E? Case 1: a,b,ca , b , ca,b,c Case 2: a,d,fa , d , fa,d,f Case 3: a,gha , g ha,gh

In an inductive argument:

Mill's method of difference helps to identify causes by:

Mill's method of residues is used when part of an effect (E) can already be explained by certain causal factors (such as a and b).It provides evidence for an additional causal factor, c, by:

Is speaking Spanish a necessary or sufficient condition for being Mexican?

When a generalization is made, is it always possible to have a complete enumeration?

Which of the following is a necessary condition for playing the piano?

The first rule of generalization is that the sample should be sufficiently _____ and _____.

Suppose that I want to make the generalization that all Americans who have served in the military are good marksmen.What would be the best way to go about looking for disconfirming instances?

Suppose that I suspect that running my ceiling fan stirs up dust and causes my table to become dusty.How could I use the method of concomitant variations to confirm this?

Classification

Definitions

Propositions

Argument Analysis

Fallacies

Categorical Propositions

Categorical Syllogisms

Reasoning With Syllogisms

Propositional Logic-Propositions

Propositional Logic-Arguments

Predicate Logic

Argument by Analogy

Statistical Reasoning

Explanation

Probability

Filters

Suppose that we examine three cases in which the factors given below coincide with the occurrence of effect E.Which factor would the method of agreement suggest is responsible for E? Case 1: $a , b , c$ Case 2: $a , d , f$ Case 3: $a , g h$

The first rule of generalization is that the sample should be sufficiently _ and _.