Exam 3: The Great River Valleys: Accelerating Change and Developing States

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The earliest uses of writing in China, Egypt, and the Indus Valley each represent significant developments in the history of human civilization, allowing for the recording of information, administration of states, and the expression of complex ideas.

**China:**
The earliest known form of writing in China is the oracle bone script, which dates back to the late Shang Dynasty (around 1200 BCE). These inscriptions were found on bones and turtle shells and were used for divination purposes. The Shang kings would pose questions to their ancestors on a range of topics, from weather to military matters. The diviners would then apply heat to the bones or shells until they cracked, and the patterns of the cracks were interpreted as answers from the ancestors. The inscriptions on the oracle bones represent the earliest known Chinese characters, which evolved into the complex system of writing that is still in use today.

**Egypt:**
In Egypt, the earliest known writing system is hieroglyphics, which dates back to around 3200 BCE. These pictorial symbols were used for a variety of purposes, including religious texts, administrative records, and monumental inscriptions. The writing was done on papyrus, walls of tombs, temples, and other structures. Hieroglyphics were a complex system with both logographic and alphabetic elements, and they were the basis for later scripts such as hieratic and demotic, which eventually led to the development of Coptic, the last stage of the Egyptian language.

**Indus Valley:**
The Indus Valley Civilization, which flourished from around 2600 to 1900 BCE, had a form of writing known as the Indus script. This script is found on a variety of artifacts, including seals, pottery, and tablets. Despite numerous attempts, the Indus script has not been definitively deciphered, and as such, much about the content and purpose of the writing remains a mystery. The script contains several hundred symbols, some of which appear to be pictographic, while others are more abstract. The use of the script suggests that it was employed for administrative and trade purposes, as well as possibly for ritual or religious reasons.

In each of these ancient civilizations, writing played a crucial role in the administration of the state, the codification of laws, the recording of history, and the conduct of trade. The development of writing systems was a transformative step in the evolution of complex societies, enabling the preservation and transmission of knowledge across generations.