Exam 22: Nationalism and Political Reform, 1850-1880

Correct Answer:

Answered by Examlex AI Copilot

The Third Republic refers to the system of government adopted in France from 1870, following the collapse of the Second French Empire, until 1940, when France was occupied by Nazi Germany during World War II. Officially known as the French Third Republic (La Troisième République Française), it was a parliamentary republic characterized by a series of constitutional laws, with the first being enacted in 1875.

The Third Republic was established after the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War and the subsequent Paris Commune. It endured many crises, including the Boulanger crisis, the Dreyfus Affair, and the divisions of World War I. Despite these challenges, it also saw periods of stability and economic growth, as well as the expansion of the French colonial empire.

The government structure of the Third Republic was based on a separation of powers with a President, a Prime Minister, and a two-house parliament consisting of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The President had limited powers and served more as a figurehead, while the real executive power rested with the Prime Minister and the Cabinet, who were responsible to the Chamber of Deputies.

The Third Republic came to an end in 1940 when the French government, led by Marshal Philippe Pétain, signed an armistice with Germany and established the Vichy regime, which collaborated with the Axis powers. The Fourth Republic was established after the liberation of France in 1944, but it was not until 1946 that a new constitution was adopted.

Correct Answer:

Answered by Examlex AI Copilot

The Crimean War was a military conflict fought from October 1853 to February 1856 in which Russia lost to an alliance of France, the United Kingdom, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia. The war was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. It was also the first war to be extensively covered by the media through reports and photographs.

The war is named after the Crimean Peninsula, which was the main theatre of war during the conflict. The majority of the battles and the infamous Siege of Sevastopol occurred there. However, there were also military operations in the Baltic Sea, the Black Sea, the Caucasus, the White Sea, and the North Pacific.

Several factors led to the outbreak of the Crimean War. Russia sought to gain control of the Ottoman-controlled territories, aiming to expand its influence in the Balkans and the Middle East. The Russians were also interested in protecting the rights of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire, meanwhile, was struggling to maintain its vast and diverse territories. France and Britain entered the war to check Russian expansion and maintain the balance of power in Europe.

The war is notable for the logistical and tactical errors during the campaign, which resulted in a high number of casualties from combat, disease, and the harsh winters. It also highlighted the need for military and medical reforms, which were implemented in the decades that followed, particularly in the British Army.

The Crimean War is often remembered for the Charge of the Light Brigade, a disastrous and ill-fated cavalry charge led by British forces, which became infamous due to the heavy British casualties. It is also known for the work of Florence Nightingale, who laid the foundations of modern nursing through her efforts to treat wounded soldiers during the war.

The conflict ended with the Treaty of Paris, signed on March 30, 1856. The treaty returned all conquered territories to their original owners, neutralized the Black Sea (banning naval fleets from operating there), and recognized the independence and territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire. However, the peace established by the treaty was precarious and did not resolve the underlying issues, setting the stage for future conflicts in the region.