Exam 23: The Age of Optimism, 1850-1880

Correct Answer:

Answered by Examlex AI Copilot

Without access to Map 23.1, it's impossible to provide a specific answer to this question. However, it's known that Paris underwent significant expansion during the second half of the 19th century, particularly after the implementation of Haussmann's renovation of Paris under Napoleon III in the 1860s. This period saw the creation of wide boulevards, parks, and public works that greatly expanded the city's footprint. As for its size compared to the reign of Philip Augustus (late 12th to early 13th century), Paris would have been significantly smaller during the Middle Ages. The city began to expand beyond its medieval boundaries in the 17th century, but the most dramatic growth occurred in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Correct Answer:

Answered by Examlex AI Copilot

Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) was a French sociologist who is widely considered one of the founding figures of sociology as an academic discipline. Durkheim's work established the framework for the sociological study of social phenomena and contributed significantly to the development of social theory.

Durkheim's key contributions to sociology include:

1. **Social Facts**: Durkheim introduced the concept of "social facts," which are aspects of social life that shape our actions as individuals. Social facts are external to the individual and endowed with a power of coercion, by which they control him or her. Examples of social facts include legal norms, moral beliefs, values, customs, rituals, and rules of behavior that exist independently of individual consciousness.

2. **Division of Labor**: In his work "The Division of Labor in Society" (1893), Durkheim argued that the division of labor in a society is not only an economic phenomenon but also has social and moral consequences. He distinguished between mechanical solidarity, which characterizes traditional and simpler societies with minimal division of labor, and organic solidarity, which arises in more complex societies where individuals are more interdependent due to specialized tasks.

3. **Collective Conscience**: This term refers to the set of shared beliefs, ideas, and moral attitudes that operate as a unifying force within society. According to Durkheim, the collective conscience is stronger in traditional societies and weaker in modern societies where individualism is more prevalent.

4. **Anomie**: Durkheim used the term "anomie" to describe a state of normlessness, where social norms are unclear or eroding, which can lead to social instability and personal disorientation. He believed that anomie occurs during periods of rapid social change or when there is a significant discrepancy between the cultural goals of a society and the means available to achieve those goals.

5. **Suicide**: In his seminal work "Suicide" (1897), Durkheim conducted a sociological study on the rates of suicide in different societies. He identified social integration and regulation as key factors influencing suicide rates and categorized suicides into different types based on the relationship between the individual and society (e.g., egoistic, altruistic, anomic, and fatalistic).

6. **Religion**: Durkheim explored the social function of religion in his book "The Elementary Forms of Religious Life" (1912). He argued that religious beliefs and rituals are expressions of social cohesion and collective consciousness, and that the sacred/profane dichotomy is central to all religions.

Durkheim's work laid the groundwork for many sociological theories and research methods, emphasizing the importance of empirical evidence and the study of social facts. His ideas continue to influence sociologists and scholars in related fields, and his theories remain central to the study of social structures, culture, and the complex relationships between individuals and society.