Question 1

The paradigm of positivism posits that:

Accepted Answer

A)  there is no universal truth. 
B)  researchers are subjective and impact what is being studied. 
C)  there is no "real" reality or absolute truth. 
D)  dichotomous conclusions are possible in scientific research. 
A)  there is no universal truth. 
B)  researchers are subjective and impact what is being studied. 
C)  there is no "real" reality or absolute truth. 
D)  dichotomous conclusions are possible in scientific research. D

Question 2

Which of the following paradigms recognizes that dichotomous conclusions are not possible in research because systems are complex and all research is flawed?

Accepted Answer

A)  Positivism 
B)  Postpositivism 
C)  Constructivism 
D)  Critical theory 
A)  Positivism 
B)  Postpositivism 
C)  Constructivism 
D)  Critical theory B

Question 3

Research indicates that people are selective or biased in the type of information to which they attend and do not think as "objective computers."

Accepted Answer

A) True 
 B)False  True

Question 4

According to the positivist perspective, a given experiment is expected to lead to the same outcome and conclusion, regardless of who conducts the experiment.

Accepted Answer

A) True 
 B)False

Question 5

One of the hallmarks of graduate work in counseling is to acquire critical thinking skills, the ability to identify and process information with fewer biases, stereotypes, and assumptions; formulate hypotheses; gather data; and make informed decisions.

Accepted Answer

A) True 
 B)False

Question 6

The _____ is one of the ways of "fixing belief" that states that whatever belief one firmly adheres to is truth.

Accepted Answer

A)  method of authority 
B)  scientific method 
C)  method of intuition 
D)  method of tenacity 
A)  method of authority 
B)  scientific method 
C)  method of intuition 
D)  method of tenacity

Question 7

Scientific research can advance researchers' understanding of human behavior by providing data that can be used to understand these behaviors. This contributes to the ability to alter such behaviors through counseling and consultation interventions.

Accepted Answer

A) True 
 B)False

Question 8

Evidence-based practice policies require that psychotherapists' practice be grounded in theory and research.

Accepted Answer

A) True 
 B)False

Question 9

It has been experimentally proven that the Sun is the main source of heat and light for all forms of life on Earth. This method of verifying facts and establishing "truths" is called the _____.

Accepted Answer

A)  method of authority 
B)  scientific method 
C)  a priori method 
D)  method of tenacity 
A)  method of authority 
B)  scientific method 
C)  a priori method 
D)  method of tenacity

Question 10

In the constructivist paradigm, there can be no predictions based upon hypothesized truths or tests of conjectures.

Accepted Answer

A) True 
 B)False

Question 11

In the postpositivism paradigm, notions of "truth" and "reality" are abandoned in favor of the belief that ideas about the social world are constructed in the minds of individuals.

Accepted Answer

A) True 
 B)False

Question 12

According to constructivism, _____.

Accepted Answer

A)  absolute truth exists and can be known 
B)  individuals create their own realities and truths based on experiences 
C)  conjectures can exist 
D)  dichotomous conclusions are possible 
A)  absolute truth exists and can be known 
B)  individuals create their own realities and truths based on experiences 
C)  conjectures can exist 
D)  dichotomous conclusions are possible

Question 13

Which of the following states that an individual's social constructions are shaped by the social, political, cultural, historical, and economic forces in the environment that often have been created by individuals who were in positions of power?

Accepted Answer

A)  Critical theory 
B)  Expectancy theory 
C)  Postpositivism 
D)  Positivism 
A)  Critical theory 
B)  Expectancy theory 
C)  Postpositivism 
D)  Positivism

Question 14

Theory-driven research involves a process whereby testing and observations are used to guide the development of hypothesis generation.

Accepted Answer

A) True 
 B)False

Question 15

The _____ focuses on how clinicians develop and test hypotheses in the session while working with their clients.

Accepted Answer

A)  scientist-practitioner model 
B)  epistemological model 
C)  local clinical scientist model 
D)  clinical governance model 
A)  scientist-practitioner model 
B)  epistemological model 
C)  local clinical scientist model 
D)  clinical governance model

Question 16

In counseling, the segregation of science and practice is essential in order to maintain updated knowledge that practitioners can integrate in their clinical work.

Accepted Answer

A) True 
 B)False

Question 17

A goal of critical theory is:

Accepted Answer

A)  to produce descriptions that are closer approximations to the truth through a succession of experiments. 
B)  to identify causal relationships among variables in a process. 
C)  to develop descriptions of human behavior, which consist of a network of knowledge statements that are grounded in observation. 
D)  to facilitate individuals' realization that constructions are socially constructed beliefs rather than unchangeable truths. 
A)  to produce descriptions that are closer approximations to the truth through a succession of experiments. 
B)  to identify causal relationships among variables in a process. 
C)  to develop descriptions of human behavior, which consist of a network of knowledge statements that are grounded in observation. 
D)  to facilitate individuals' realization that constructions are socially constructed beliefs rather than unchangeable truths.

Question 18

The a priori method of "fixing belief" states that if something makes sense and has previously been believed to be true, then it is indeed true.

Accepted Answer

A) True 
 B)False

Question 19

The foundation of counseling and counseling psychology is based on the integration of:

Accepted Answer

A)  science and technology into behavior management. 
B)  science into practice and of practice into science. 
C)  science into society through hybrid organizations. 
D)  science into policymaking and of policymaking into science. 
A)  science and technology into behavior management. 
B)  science into practice and of practice into science. 
C)  science into society through hybrid organizations. 
D)  science into policymaking and of policymaking into science.

Question 20

A difference between the positivist perspective and the postpositivist perspective is that the postpositivist perspective posits that:

Accepted Answer

A)  there is no absolute truth. 
B)  scientists have biases that may affect research. 
C)  there is no scope for error in the scientific process. 
D)  dichotomous conclusions are possible in scientific researches. 
A)  there is no absolute truth. 
B)  scientists have biases that may affect research. 
C)  there is no scope for error in the scientific process. 
D)  dichotomous conclusions are possible in scientific researches.

Exam 1: Philosophies of Science and Counseling: Why Science Matters to Counseling

The paradigm of positivism posits that:

Which of the following paradigms recognizes that dichotomous conclusions are not possible in research because systems are complex and all research is flawed?

Research indicates that people are selective or biased in the type of information to which they attend and do not think as "objective computers."

According to the positivist perspective, a given experiment is expected to lead to the same outcome and conclusion, regardless of who conducts the experiment.

One of the hallmarks of graduate work in counseling is to acquire critical thinking skills, the ability to identify and process information with fewer biases, stereotypes, and assumptions; formulate hypotheses; gather data; and make informed decisions.

The _____ is one of the ways of "fixing belief" that states that whatever belief one firmly adheres to is truth.

Scientific research can advance researchers' understanding of human behavior by providing data that can be used to understand these behaviors. This contributes to the ability to alter such behaviors through counseling and consultation interventions.

Evidence-based practice policies require that psychotherapists' practice be grounded in theory and research.

It has been experimentally proven that the Sun is the main source of heat and light for all forms of life on Earth. This method of verifying facts and establishing "truths" is called the _____.

In the constructivist paradigm, there can be no predictions based upon hypothesized truths or tests of conjectures.

In the postpositivism paradigm, notions of "truth" and "reality" are abandoned in favor of the belief that ideas about the social world are constructed in the minds of individuals.

According to constructivism, _____.

Which of the following states that an individual's social constructions are shaped by the social, political, cultural, historical, and economic forces in the environment that often have been created by individuals who were in positions of power?

Theory-driven research involves a process whereby testing and observations are used to guide the development of hypothesis generation.

The _____ focuses on how clinicians develop and test hypotheses in the session while working with their clients.

In counseling, the segregation of science and practice is essential in order to maintain updated knowledge that practitioners can integrate in their clinical work.

A goal of critical theory is:

The a priori method of "fixing belief" states that if something makes sense and has previously been believed to be true, then it is indeed true.

The foundation of counseling and counseling psychology is based on the integration of:

A difference between the positivist perspective and the postpositivist perspective is that the postpositivist perspective posits that:

Research Training: Joys and Challenges

Ethics in Counseling Research: Being and Doing Right

Professional Writing: a Critical Skill for Scientists and Practitioners

Identifying Interests and Operationalizing Topics: Forget That Perfect Study

Choosing Research Designs: Balancing Ideals and Realities

Validity Issues in Research: the Heart of It All

Population Issues: Who We Study Matters

Diverse Perspectives: Conceptual and Methodological Considerations

Scale Construction: a Most Fundamental Tool

True Experimental Designs: the Power of Between-Groups and Within-Subjects Designs

Quasi-Experimental and Longitudinal Designs: Examining Relationships in Applied Setting

Quantitative Descriptive Designs: Describing, Explaining, and Predicting Phenomenon

Analogue Research: Maximizing Experimental Control

Single-Subject Designs: Learning From the Richness of a Sample Size of 1

Qualitative Research: Complexities and Richness From Digging Deeper

Mixed Methods Designs: When Qualitative and Quantitative Designs Meet

The Independent Variable: the Drivers of the Study

The Dependent Variable: Skillfully Measuring Intended Outcomes

Counseling Outcome Research: Does Counseling Work

Process Research: the Hows and Whys That Make Counseling Work

Program Evaluation: Applying Science and Practice to Real Life

Bias: Error Variances From Investigators, Experimenters, and Participants

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