Exam 1: Basic Concepts

Which of the following are all inductive arguments?

During the past 80 years, the number of Model T Fords on the highway has steadily fallen while the number of deaths from lung cancer has steadily risen. Thus, to reduce the number of deaths from lung cancer we should bring back the Model T Ford.

PART A If class-action lawsuits are banned, then big business will win. Hence, big business will not win, since class-action lawsuits will not be banned. Which of the following correctly expresses the form of this argument? a. \begin{array} { l } \text {If \mathrm{C} then \( \mathrm{B} \). }\\ \text {{Not} B }\\ \hline\text {{Not} C }\\\end{array}$\quad$ b. \begin{array} { l } \text {Not C. }\\ \text {Not B. }\\ \hline\text {If \mathrm{C} then \( \mathrm{B} \). }\\\end{array}$\quad$ c. If C then B . Not C Not B. d. \begin{array} { l } \text {If \mathrm{C} then \( \mathrm{B} \). }\\ \text { B}\\ \text { C}\\\end{array}$\quad$ e. If C then B . C B PART B Which of the following substitutions proves the argument invalid? A) C = Nicole Kidman was beheaded, B = Nicole Kidman is dead. B) C = Bob Smith was beheaded, B = Bob Smith is dead. C) C = Abraham Lincoln was assassinated, B = Abraham Lincoln is dead. D) C = George Washington is dead, B = George Washington was assassinated. E) C = George Washington was beheaded, B = George Washington is dead.

The aim of an experiment is not to prove that a hypothesis is correct. Rather, the aim is to demonstrate that it is highly probable that the hypothesis is correct. Researchers ask the question in the following way: "What is the probability that the results I have obtained could have been found by chance alone?" Hence, social psychology, like most other sciences, deals with probabilities rather than absolutes. Stephen Worchel, et al., Understanding Social Psychology, 5^th edition

Andrew is lighter than Carl, and Carl is heavier than Marty. Therefore, it follows necessarily that Andrew is lighter than Marty.

Health can be conceptualized from medical, functional, or psychological perspectives. The medical model defines health as an absence of illness or disease, while the functional model defines health in terms of individuals' ability to perform their assigned roles. The psychological model of health emphasizes physical, psychological, and social well-being in measuring the health of individuals. Michael P. Soroka and George J. Bryjak, Social Problems: A World at Risk

Which of the following sentences is a statement?

Sixty percent of the members of the Theta Society drive American cars. Hence, since Kristy is a member of the Theta Society, it is likely that she drives an American car.

Prior to their extinction, Neanderthals had been widespread in Europe for 100,000 years. Then 50,000 years ago, modern humans moved into Europe from Africa. Twenty-six thousand years after that the last Neanderthal died. At one time it was thought that the Neanderthals were killed by climate change, but this theory has now been discounted. So why did the Neanderthals perish? Probably they were killed by the humans.

PART A Some cashmere sweaters are fashionable garments, so some cashmere sweaters are not suede jackets, for some suede jackets are not fashionable garments. Which of the following correctly expresses the form of this argument? a. Some C are F . Some C are not . Some S are not F . $\quad$ b. Some S are not F . Some C are . Some C are not . $\quad$ a. \begin{array} { l } \text {Some \mathrm{S} are not \( \mathrm{F} \). }\\ \text {Some C arenot \( \mathrm{S} \). }\\ \hline\text { Some C are F.}\\\end{array} d. \begin{array} { l } \text {Some F are not S. }\\ \text {Some \mathrm{F} are \( \mathrm{C} \). }\\ \text {Some \( S \) are not C. }\\\end{array}$\quad$ e. \begin{array} { l } \text {Some C are F. }\\ \text {Some \mathrm{F} are not \( \mathrm{S} \). }\\ \text {Some \( \mathrm{C} \) are not \( \mathrm{S} \). }\\\end{array}$\quad$ PART B Which of the following substitutions proves the argument invalid? A) C = animals, F = cats, S = mammals. B) C = dogs, F = animals, S = mammals. C) C = dogs, F = mammals, S = fish. D) C= mammals, F = animals, S = dogs. E) C = cats, F = mammals, S = animals.

Ashley detests Isabel, and Isabel detests Francesca. Therefore, it necessarily follows that Ashley detests Francesca.

Computerized scanning equipment has revolutionized the study of brain diseases and injuries. At best, conventional X-rays produce only shadowy images of the brain. Computed tomographic (CT) scanning is a specialized type of X-ray that does a much better job of making the brain visible. In a CT scan, X-ray information is collected by a computer and formed into an image of the brain. A CT scan can reveal the effects of strokes, injuries, tumors, and other brain disorders. Dennis Coon and John O. Mitterer, Psychology: A Journey

If the form of a deductive argument allows for a substitution instance having true premises and a true conclusion, then we know:

Tattooing and body piercing pose serious health risks to those receiving them. The primary concern is infection with blood-born pathogens like H.I.V. and hepatitis. Bacteria that live on the skin are easily spread by unsterilized instruments or ungloved hands. And tongue and genital piercing can also provide channels for bacteria and viruses to enter the bloodstream after the piercing procedure. Lorraine Kreahling, "The Perils of Needles to the Body"

The right to healthcare has become a consumer issue. Historically, the poor either had to be satisfied with a decreased quality of care or to do without healthcare entirely. Today many citizens view equal access to healthcare as everyone's right. An ongoing debate centers on who should pay for this care. Ruth F. Craven and Constance J. Hirnle, Fundamentals of Nursing

A few winners of the Nobel Peace Prize have been women. Therefore, it is likely that the next Nobel Peace Prize winner will be a woman.

PART A Some entertainers are not magicians, for some comedians are not magicians and some magicians that are not comedians are entertainers. Which of the following correctly expresses the form of this argument? a. \begin{array} { l } \text {Some \mathrm{C} are not \( \mathrm{M} \)}\\ \text {Some M are E. }\\ \hline\text {Some \( E \) are not \( M \) }\\\end{array}$\quad$ b. Some M that are not are . Some E are not M. Some are not . c. \begin{array} { l } \text {Some \mathrm{C} are not \( \mathrm{M} \). }\\ \text {Some M that are not C are \( \mathrm{E} \). }\\ \hline\text { Some E are not M. }\\\end{array}$\quad$ d. Some E are not . Some C are not M. Some M that are not are . e. \begin{array} { l } \text {Some E are not M. }\\ \text { Some C are not M. }\\ \text {All M that are not C are \mathrm{E} . }\\\end{array} PART B Which of the following substitutions proves the argument invalid? A) M = mammals, C = animals, E = dogs. B) M = cats, C = trees, E = animals. C) M = mammals, C = cats, E = animals. D) M = animals, C = trees, E = cats. E) M = fish, C = dogs, E = mammals.

James Bloomfield, the widely respected expert on art authentication, says that the painting recently discovered in the basement of the art museum is a genuine Picasso. Therefore, we conclude that the painting is indeed a genuine Picasso.

If an inductive argument has true premises and a probably false conclusion, then we know the argument is:

For a long time, Haydn's music was regarded as genial and lively, and much of its depth, wit, and brilliance went unnoticed. This was because only a few of his compositions were performed regularly at concerts. Nowadays, however, much more of Haydn's music is being performed, and the extraordinary range of his achievement is being recognized. Jeffrey Yudkin, Understanding Music, 4^th edition