Exam 11: Section 3: Development

Scenario I Scenario I is based on and presents fabricated results consistent with the following study: Kim, I. K., & Spelke, E. S. (1992). Infants' sensitivity to effects of gravity on visual object motion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 18(2), 385-393. Kim and Spelke (1992) investigated the extent to which infants have expectancies of gravitational effects on visual object motion. Three- and five-month-old infants repeatedly watched a video of a ball accelerating as it rolled down an incline until they spent little time actively looking at it. Subsequently, two types of test trials were conducted in randomized order. Type A test trials consisted of a ball slowing down as it rolled up an incline. Type B test trials consisted of a ball slowing down as it rolled down an incline. During all trials, the amount of time looking at each visual display was recorded. Fabricated data consistent with the major finding of this study are presented in Figure 11.1. Figure 11.1 -(Scenario I) This study exploits the well-known finding that infants generally will _____objects or scenarios that are _____.

Scenario II Scenario II is based on the following studies: Gopnik, A., & Astington, J. W. (1988). Children's understanding of representative change and its relation to the understanding of false belief and the appearance-reality distinction. Child Development, 59, 26-37. Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children's understanding of deception. Cognition, 13(1), 103-128. Wimmer and Perner (1983) first developed a procedure to assess if children have developed a theory of mind. Children were read an illustrated story in which a puppet named Maxi hid a piece of chocolate in one cupboard and then left the room. While Maxi was away, a second puppet entered the room, discovered the chocolate, and hid it in a new location before leaving. The story ended with Maxi's return. Children were asked where Maxi will look for the chocolate. Whereas most five-year-olds who have developed a theory of mind will report that he will look in the cupboard, most three-year-olds will report that Maxi will look in the new location. Using a different procedure, Gopnik and Astington (1988) first arranged a control condition in which children were shown a dollhouse. Inside the dollhouse was an apple. In the presence of the children, the experimenter opened the dollhouse and replaced the apple with a doll. A few minutes later, the children were asked what was currently in the dollhouse and what had previously been in the dollhouse. Only children who answered these questions correctly progressed to the experimental condition. Here, the experimenter showed children a candy box. When they opened it, the children discovered that it contained pencils. When the children were asked what they originally thought was in the box, most five-year-olds said candy and most three-year-olds said pencils. -(Scenario II) In order to respond correctly in Wimmer and Perner's (1983) study, children need to:

Scenario I Scenario I is based on and presents fabricated results consistent with the following study: Kim, I. K., & Spelke, E. S. (1992). Infants' sensitivity to effects of gravity on visual object motion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 18(2), 385-393. Kim and Spelke (1992) investigated the extent to which infants have expectancies of gravitational effects on visual object motion. Three- and five-month-old infants repeatedly watched a video of a ball accelerating as it rolled down an incline until they spent little time actively looking at it. Subsequently, two types of test trials were conducted in randomized order. Type A test trials consisted of a ball slowing down as it rolled up an incline. Type B test trials consisted of a ball slowing down as it rolled down an incline. During all trials, the amount of time looking at each visual display was recorded. Fabricated data consistent with the major finding of this study are presented in Figure 11.1. Figure 11.1 -(Scenario I) Evidence of the presence or absence of gravitational expectancies were operationally defined in terms of:

Scenario II Scenario II is based on the following studies: Gopnik, A., & Astington, J. W. (1988). Children's understanding of representative change and its relation to the understanding of false belief and the appearance-reality distinction. Child Development, 59, 26-37. Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children's understanding of deception. Cognition, 13(1), 103-128. Wimmer and Perner (1983) first developed a procedure to assess if children have developed a theory of mind. Children were read an illustrated story in which a puppet named Maxi hid a piece of chocolate in one cupboard and then left the room. While Maxi was away, a second puppet entered the room, discovered the chocolate, and hid it in a new location before leaving. The story ended with Maxi's return. Children were asked where Maxi will look for the chocolate. Whereas most five-year-olds who have developed a theory of mind will report that he will look in the cupboard, most three-year-olds will report that Maxi will look in the new location. Using a different procedure, Gopnik and Astington (1988) first arranged a control condition in which children were shown a dollhouse. Inside the dollhouse was an apple. In the presence of the children, the experimenter opened the dollhouse and replaced the apple with a doll. A few minutes later, the children were asked what was currently in the dollhouse and what had previously been in the dollhouse. Only children who answered these questions correctly progressed to the experimental condition. Here, the experimenter showed children a candy box. When they opened it, the children discovered that it contained pencils. When the children were asked what they originally thought was in the box, most five-year-olds said candy and most three-year-olds said pencils. -(Scenario II) Lacking a theory of mind, three-year-olds in Wimmer and Perner's (1983) study demonstrated:

Scenario I Scenario I is based on and presents fabricated results consistent with the following study: Kim, I. K., & Spelke, E. S. (1992). Infants' sensitivity to effects of gravity on visual object motion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 18(2), 385-393. Kim and Spelke (1992) investigated the extent to which infants have expectancies of gravitational effects on visual object motion. Three- and five-month-old infants repeatedly watched a video of a ball accelerating as it rolled down an incline until they spent little time actively looking at it. Subsequently, two types of test trials were conducted in randomized order. Type A test trials consisted of a ball slowing down as it rolled up an incline. Type B test trials consisted of a ball slowing down as it rolled down an incline. During all trials, the amount of time looking at each visual display was recorded. Fabricated data consistent with the major finding of this study are presented in Figure 11.1. Figure 11.1 -(Scenario I) Which statement pertaining to the test trials is true?

Scenario I Scenario I is based on and presents fabricated results consistent with the following study: Kim, I. K., & Spelke, E. S. (1992). Infants' sensitivity to effects of gravity on visual object motion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 18(2), 385-393. Kim and Spelke (1992) investigated the extent to which infants have expectancies of gravitational effects on visual object motion. Three- and five-month-old infants repeatedly watched a video of a ball accelerating as it rolled down an incline until they spent little time actively looking at it. Subsequently, two types of test trials were conducted in randomized order. Type A test trials consisted of a ball slowing down as it rolled up an incline. Type B test trials consisted of a ball slowing down as it rolled down an incline. During all trials, the amount of time looking at each visual display was recorded. Fabricated data consistent with the major finding of this study are presented in Figure 11.1. Figure 11.1 -(Scenario I) Which is the likely explanation for the decreased looking time across training trials?

Scenario I Scenario I is based on and presents fabricated results consistent with the following study: Kim, I. K., & Spelke, E. S. (1992). Infants' sensitivity to effects of gravity on visual object motion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 18(2), 385-393. Kim and Spelke (1992) investigated the extent to which infants have expectancies of gravitational effects on visual object motion. Three- and five-month-old infants repeatedly watched a video of a ball accelerating as it rolled down an incline until they spent little time actively looking at it. Subsequently, two types of test trials were conducted in randomized order. Type A test trials consisted of a ball slowing down as it rolled up an incline. Type B test trials consisted of a ball slowing down as it rolled down an incline. During all trials, the amount of time looking at each visual display was recorded. Fabricated data consistent with the major finding of this study are presented in Figure 11.1. Figure 11.1 -(Scenario I) Which is a true inference based on the data shown in Figure 11.1?

Scenario I Scenario I is based on and presents fabricated results consistent with the following study: Kim, I. K., & Spelke, E. S. (1992). Infants' sensitivity to effects of gravity on visual object motion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 18(2), 385-393. Kim and Spelke (1992) investigated the extent to which infants have expectancies of gravitational effects on visual object motion. Three- and five-month-old infants repeatedly watched a video of a ball accelerating as it rolled down an incline until they spent little time actively looking at it. Subsequently, two types of test trials were conducted in randomized order. Type A test trials consisted of a ball slowing down as it rolled up an incline. Type B test trials consisted of a ball slowing down as it rolled down an incline. During all trials, the amount of time looking at each visual display was recorded. Fabricated data consistent with the major finding of this study are presented in Figure 11.1. Figure 11.1 -(Scenario I) Based on the data shown in Figure 11.1, which group(s) of infants, if any, appear to possess a concept of gravity?

Scenario II Scenario II is based on the following studies: Gopnik, A., & Astington, J. W. (1988). Children's understanding of representative change and its relation to the understanding of false belief and the appearance-reality distinction. Child Development, 59, 26-37. Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children's understanding of deception. Cognition, 13(1), 103-128. Wimmer and Perner (1983) first developed a procedure to assess if children have developed a theory of mind. Children were read an illustrated story in which a puppet named Maxi hid a piece of chocolate in one cupboard and then left the room. While Maxi was away, a second puppet entered the room, discovered the chocolate, and hid it in a new location before leaving. The story ended with Maxi's return. Children were asked where Maxi will look for the chocolate. Whereas most five-year-olds who have developed a theory of mind will report that he will look in the cupboard, most three-year-olds will report that Maxi will look in the new location. Using a different procedure, Gopnik and Astington (1988) first arranged a control condition in which children were shown a dollhouse. Inside the dollhouse was an apple. In the presence of the children, the experimenter opened the dollhouse and replaced the apple with a doll. A few minutes later, the children were asked what was currently in the dollhouse and what had previously been in the dollhouse. Only children who answered these questions correctly progressed to the experimental condition. Here, the experimenter showed children a candy box. When they opened it, the children discovered that it contained pencils. When the children were asked what they originally thought was in the box, most five-year-olds said candy and most three-year-olds said pencils. -(Scenario II) In the Gopnik and Astington (1988) study, the control question "What used to be in the dollhouse?" is analogous to asking children in the Wimmer and Perner (1983) study:

Scenario II Scenario II is based on the following studies: Gopnik, A., & Astington, J. W. (1988). Children's understanding of representative change and its relation to the understanding of false belief and the appearance-reality distinction. Child Development, 59, 26-37. Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children's understanding of deception. Cognition, 13(1), 103-128. Wimmer and Perner (1983) first developed a procedure to assess if children have developed a theory of mind. Children were read an illustrated story in which a puppet named Maxi hid a piece of chocolate in one cupboard and then left the room. While Maxi was away, a second puppet entered the room, discovered the chocolate, and hid it in a new location before leaving. The story ended with Maxi's return. Children were asked where Maxi will look for the chocolate. Whereas most five-year-olds who have developed a theory of mind will report that he will look in the cupboard, most three-year-olds will report that Maxi will look in the new location. Using a different procedure, Gopnik and Astington (1988) first arranged a control condition in which children were shown a dollhouse. Inside the dollhouse was an apple. In the presence of the children, the experimenter opened the dollhouse and replaced the apple with a doll. A few minutes later, the children were asked what was currently in the dollhouse and what had previously been in the dollhouse. Only children who answered these questions correctly progressed to the experimental condition. Here, the experimenter showed children a candy box. When they opened it, the children discovered that it contained pencils. When the children were asked what they originally thought was in the box, most five-year-olds said candy and most three-year-olds said pencils. -(Scenario II) The fact that three-year olds in the Gopnik and Astington (1988) study responded accurately in the control condition but inaccurately in the experimental condition:

Scenario II Scenario II is based on the following studies: Gopnik, A., & Astington, J. W. (1988). Children's understanding of representative change and its relation to the understanding of false belief and the appearance-reality distinction. Child Development, 59, 26-37. Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children's understanding of deception. Cognition, 13(1), 103-128. Wimmer and Perner (1983) first developed a procedure to assess if children have developed a theory of mind. Children were read an illustrated story in which a puppet named Maxi hid a piece of chocolate in one cupboard and then left the room. While Maxi was away, a second puppet entered the room, discovered the chocolate, and hid it in a new location before leaving. The story ended with Maxi's return. Children were asked where Maxi will look for the chocolate. Whereas most five-year-olds who have developed a theory of mind will report that he will look in the cupboard, most three-year-olds will report that Maxi will look in the new location. Using a different procedure, Gopnik and Astington (1988) first arranged a control condition in which children were shown a dollhouse. Inside the dollhouse was an apple. In the presence of the children, the experimenter opened the dollhouse and replaced the apple with a doll. A few minutes later, the children were asked what was currently in the dollhouse and what had previously been in the dollhouse. Only children who answered these questions correctly progressed to the experimental condition. Here, the experimenter showed children a candy box. When they opened it, the children discovered that it contained pencils. When the children were asked what they originally thought was in the box, most five-year-olds said candy and most three-year-olds said pencils. -(Scenario II) The results obtained in the experimental condition by Gopnik and Astington (1988) suggests that three-year-olds treat their past selves as:

Scenario II Scenario II is based on the following studies: Gopnik, A., & Astington, J. W. (1988). Children's understanding of representative change and its relation to the understanding of false belief and the appearance-reality distinction. Child Development, 59, 26-37. Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children's understanding of deception. Cognition, 13(1), 103-128. Wimmer and Perner (1983) first developed a procedure to assess if children have developed a theory of mind. Children were read an illustrated story in which a puppet named Maxi hid a piece of chocolate in one cupboard and then left the room. While Maxi was away, a second puppet entered the room, discovered the chocolate, and hid it in a new location before leaving. The story ended with Maxi's return. Children were asked where Maxi will look for the chocolate. Whereas most five-year-olds who have developed a theory of mind will report that he will look in the cupboard, most three-year-olds will report that Maxi will look in the new location. Using a different procedure, Gopnik and Astington (1988) first arranged a control condition in which children were shown a dollhouse. Inside the dollhouse was an apple. In the presence of the children, the experimenter opened the dollhouse and replaced the apple with a doll. A few minutes later, the children were asked what was currently in the dollhouse and what had previously been in the dollhouse. Only children who answered these questions correctly progressed to the experimental condition. Here, the experimenter showed children a candy box. When they opened it, the children discovered that it contained pencils. When the children were asked what they originally thought was in the box, most five-year-olds said candy and most three-year-olds said pencils. -(Scenario II) Wimmer and Perner's (1983) procedure is commonly referred to as a _____ test.

Scenario I Scenario I is based on and presents fabricated results consistent with the following study: Kim, I. K., & Spelke, E. S. (1992). Infants' sensitivity to effects of gravity on visual object motion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 18(2), 385-393. Kim and Spelke (1992) investigated the extent to which infants have expectancies of gravitational effects on visual object motion. Three- and five-month-old infants repeatedly watched a video of a ball accelerating as it rolled down an incline until they spent little time actively looking at it. Subsequently, two types of test trials were conducted in randomized order. Type A test trials consisted of a ball slowing down as it rolled up an incline. Type B test trials consisted of a ball slowing down as it rolled down an incline. During all trials, the amount of time looking at each visual display was recorded. Fabricated data consistent with the major finding of this study are presented in Figure 11.1. Figure 11.1 -(Scenario I) Kim and Spelke (1992) utilized a simple form of learning termed _____ to investigate their research question.

Scenario II Scenario II is based on the following studies: Gopnik, A., & Astington, J. W. (1988). Children's understanding of representative change and its relation to the understanding of false belief and the appearance-reality distinction. Child Development, 59, 26-37. Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children's understanding of deception. Cognition, 13(1), 103-128. Wimmer and Perner (1983) first developed a procedure to assess if children have developed a theory of mind. Children were read an illustrated story in which a puppet named Maxi hid a piece of chocolate in one cupboard and then left the room. While Maxi was away, a second puppet entered the room, discovered the chocolate, and hid it in a new location before leaving. The story ended with Maxi's return. Children were asked where Maxi will look for the chocolate. Whereas most five-year-olds who have developed a theory of mind will report that he will look in the cupboard, most three-year-olds will report that Maxi will look in the new location. Using a different procedure, Gopnik and Astington (1988) first arranged a control condition in which children were shown a dollhouse. Inside the dollhouse was an apple. In the presence of the children, the experimenter opened the dollhouse and replaced the apple with a doll. A few minutes later, the children were asked what was currently in the dollhouse and what had previously been in the dollhouse. Only children who answered these questions correctly progressed to the experimental condition. Here, the experimenter showed children a candy box. When they opened it, the children discovered that it contained pencils. When the children were asked what they originally thought was in the box, most five-year-olds said candy and most three-year-olds said pencils. -(Scenario II) The control condition conducted by Gopnik and Astington (1988) helps eliminate all of these explanations of the general findings by Wimmer and Perner (1983) EXCEPT: